Middle East steppe

• Category: Grassland, Tundra, and Human Biomes.
• Geographic Location: Middle East.
• Summary: A study in contrasts that includes both arid, desert-like zones and wetlands, this biome hosts animal and plant life that is under threat from human development and from a naturally occurring drought.

The arid, grass-covered plains that make up steppes are found on every continent on the planet except Australia and Antarctica. Steppes are generally found close to mountains and away from oceans. The Middle East steppe biome encompasses the Tigris and Euphrates Rivers, which flow from Turkey southeastward into the Persian Gulf.

While steppes are not always hospitable to humans due to poor soils that make it difficult to grow crops, the Middle East steppe includes the Fertile Crescent, the greener area of western Asia surrounded by arid and semiarid land. Shrubs and grasses typically found in steppes are located in the Middle East steppe, but the area is also home to riverine woodlands and extensive wetlands.

Like most steppes, the Middle East steppe experiences hot summer temperatures and cold winters. Average temperatures within the region range from January lows of 44.6 degrees F (7 degrees C) to July highs of 80.6 degrees F (27 degrees C). Steppes commonly experience violent winds, and the Middle East steppe is no exception. It experiences the hot, dusty khamsin wind that originates during summer in the eastern and southeastern regions. When the khamsin is blowing, temperatures frequently rise above 100 degrees F (38 degrees C). Less than 10 inches (254 millimeters) of rain falls in the Middle East steppe annually, and it can be even drier in the eastern and southern sections located close to the Syrian Desert.

Within the Middle East steppe, the area known as the Fertile Crescent stretches from the Mediterranean Sea on the west to the Euphrates and Tigris River valleys on the east. It encompasses all or parts of Israel, the West Bank, Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Iraq. This area has a centuries-long bloody human history that has often made it impossible for nations within the area to agree on responsible use of its resources, whether water, oil, or the biota.

Vegetation and Animals

The open shrub of the Middle East steppe begins in western Jordan and reaches into southwestern and central Syria before crossing into northern Iraq, where it arrives at the Euphrates and Tigris rivers. From there, the steppe stretches out toward the east and the south, toward the foothills of the Zagros Mountains, which spread across northern Iran. Boulder fields of black basalt are ubiquitous in the southeastern portion of the steppe.

Within the valley surrounding the two rivers, the soils are alluvial-colluvial. Most of the vegetation within the Middle East steppe is herbaceous, and features dwarf shrub sage (Artemesia herba-alba) and grasses (Poa bulbosa). Soils may be stony outside riverine areas. Seasonal lakes and marshes, which may be either freshwater or saline, are permanently scattered throughout the steppe. Tamarix and poplars like Populus euphratica may be found near water sources. Many reed species grow in the wetlands areas.

In addition to the domestic animals that live in the more populated areas of the steppe, animal life tends to consist of grazing animals and predators that are able to survive the conditions in isolated areas. Unpopulated areas of the Middle East steppe are home to wolves, Ruppell sand foxes, caracals, jungle cats, and wildcats. Badgers are common in more vegetated areas, and wild boars are found in reed thickets and in semidesert areas.

Because of the variety of land area encompassed in the Middle East steppe, bird life is varied. The semidesert areas are home to the houbara bustard, the great bustard, and the little bustard. Both the great bustard and the lesser kestrel have been listed as vulnerable. Other birds include the Eurasian griffon vulture and the lanner falcon.

The availability of wetlands that dot the river valley areas between southern and central Turkey and Iraq means that the Middle East steppe is a significant migration route for scores of waterbird types, such as the greater flamingo, the pygmy cormorant, and the marbled teal, and for terrestrial birds such as the turtledove. The pin-tailed sandgrouse, which lives on the nearby plains, also frequents the river waters. Global warming is significantly impacting migratory bird patterns in the Middle East, causing birds to migrate earlier in the spring. This potentially alters their breeding grounds and causes a mismatch of food availability of peak insect availability and plant emergence for feeding their young. This could lead to potential population declines for certain species. Rising temperatures may also force some birds to shift their migration routes further north to find better food sources and more suitable habitats.

Effects of Human Activity

There is still great biodiversity in the Middle East steppe in the twenty-first century, though the populations of some species are declining. Efforts are being made to protect vulnerable species such as the Arabian goitered gazelle, the marbled teal, and the lesser kestrel. In 2023, scientists conducted research into the rapid decline of the goiterized gazelle population in the region over the preceding few decades. Their evidence concluded the steep population decline was "likely due to a deficiency in proper and effective [protected areas], ecosystem degradation, and the lack of action plans or strategies for conservation planning."

Land degradation poses significant socio-environmental challenges, including poverty, food insecurity, biodiversity loss, and decreased ecosystem services. It is particularly severe in arid regions like the Middle East. Climate projections like reduced rainfall and rising temperatures, are expected to make these issues worse, further threatening soil productivity and regional sustainability. Rapid urbanization and geopolitical conflicts further worsen land degradation, while climate change intensifies droughts, soil degradation, and crop yield losses, threatening global food security.

While much of the steppe is not conducive to agriculture, arid areas are experiencing a backlash of problems associated with farming in the Fertile Crescent. Some areas of the steppe have been converted to farmland, and water from the riverine areas is used for irrigation. Chemical fertilizers used to grow cotton, wheat, barley, rice, olives, millet, sugar beets, and tobacco for export are polluting the waters. The leaching of fertilizers into groundwater disrupts aquatic ecosystems, alters biodiversity, and affects the food chain. Export-oriented farming often prioritizes productivity over sustainable practices, jeopardizing the long-term health of both ecosystems and communities dependent on these resources.

Some of the lakes within the steppe have been turned into fish ponds. The construction of the Asad Dam on the Euphrates River between 1968 and 1973 led to a decrease in steppe area. The transformation of lakes within the Middle Eastern steppe into fish ponds, alongside dam construction projects like the Asad Dam on the Euphrates River, has significantly impacted the steppe ecosystem. These activities reduced the natural extent of the steppe, altering its delicate balance. For example, the creation of Lake Assad in 1974 flooded large swaths of the steppe, disrupting native plant and animal species that depend on this habitat. Such habitat loss diminishes biodiversity and disrupts migratory routes for wildlife.

Fish pond construction and dam reservoirs have changed water flow patterns and increased water demand, contributing to soil salinization and reduced groundwater recharge in steppe regions. This exacerbates land degradation and desertification, particularly in areas where aridity is already a significant concern. Plans to construct additional dams may further fragment the steppe ecosystem, intensify habitat loss, and escalate environmental pressures, endangering the steppe's ecological and cultural significance.

Farmers burn reed beds so they can be regrown to feed livestock, and domestic animals are overgrazing the steppe. Hunting and taxidermy are depleting waterfowl and game birds. Woods in riverine areas are being used for firewood, and industrialization in the area increases pollution and places additional pressure on the environment.

In the early twenty-first century, the most serious environmental problems were persistent drought, the proliferation of dams, and ubiquitous oil pipelines. A 2007 study by Japanese and Israeli meteorologists predicted that these drought conditions, exacerbated by climate change, may become permanent. This drought continued into the 2020s, killing many horses, cattle, and sheep due to a lack of vegetation and water. Despite evidence that the area cannot handle indiscriminate damming of its waters, new dam construction continues in the twenty-first century. Tensions among the countries, particularly between Turkey and Iraq, Israel and Palestine, and Syria and its neighbors, are becoming more strained—with water the leading flashpoint issue—making it highly unlikely that regional cooperation can be expected to provide a solution to the region's ongoing environmental problems.

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