Consumer Culture Theory

Last reviewed: February 2017

Abstract

“Consumer culture theory” refers to the interdisciplinary field that studies the behavior of people in the context of consumer goods, its use, and the spending of money. A significant segment of the consumer culture field has developed theories that deal with lifestyle, acquisition of services and goods, and how these relate to personal happiness and well-being. Consumer cultures are an important part of national and global economies. Critics, however, express concern about a dark side to consumer culture, including the exclusion of those who cannot participate in it fully.

Overview

Consumer culture theory (CCT) is an amalgam of theories rooted in various disciplines, from marketing and economics to psychology and sociology. In practice, it is an ethnographic theory—that is, it seeks to understand the behaviors and customs of individuals and cultures. Scholars as diverse as Stephen Fry, Néstor García Canclini, Zygmunt Bauman, Daniel Miller, Mary Douglas and Arjun Appadurai have contributed their expertise to creating theories about consumption and related social phenomena. The aggregate of their work has built a body of knowledge called by different names, from consumer anthropology to cultural studies, and subdivided into myriad categories. All of these are related to CCT. CCT’s focus is not only on the creation and consumption of consumer goods and services, but also on their symbolic dimension—that is, what they mean for the people who use them and how they fit into the reproduction of values and structures in the economic processes of societies.

CCT, then, is not a unified theory. In the words of Eric J. Arnould and Craig Thomson, “it refers to a family of theoretical perspectives that addresses the dynamic relationship between consumer actions.” CCT explores the varied distribution of meanings and the “multiplicity of overlapping cultural groupings” that exist in the capitalist system and within the framework of globalization. CCT posits that societies and culture are dynamic and symbolic, and their relations with material resources are mediated through markets (Arnould & Thompson, 2005).

While older consumer theories emphasized the rational aspect of consumer behavior—that is, they argued that consumer behavior was impelled by rational decisions—contemporary CCT theory focuses on how people engage in different consumer behaviors, and rationality is a minor part of it. In fact, CCT considers that most consuming behavior is influenced by social relations and conditioning, rather than just economic rationality or individual psychological factors.

Some parts of CCT focus directly on human behavior, such as exploring the psychological and social impact of buying and spending. There are many factors that influence human consuming behavior: a need for a particular product, the desire to fit with peers (or “keep up with the neighbors”), the belief that a new particular product will improve one’s quality of life, or the aesthetic and emotional pleasure of leisure shopping. CCT is interested in all of these. Although these behaviors might appear purely psychological on the surface, the truth is that they are also expressed and conditioned according to social and cultural mores.

CCT and Marketing. For obvious reasons, business owners and marketing experts are also interested in CCT. Understanding consumer cultures helps them optimize advertising and sales, and maximize the ways in which they can reach more target markets. For example, CCT helps marketers understand that encouraging customers to consider their products as essential to happiness improves their demographic outreach. Among the factors that influence consumer cultures are advertising and marketing. Nevertheless, this is not a one-way interaction, and businesses and marketers must also react to pressure from changing consumer behavior.

Because most people usually buy emotionally rather than rationally, that is, based on wants rather than needs, businesses are highly dependent on marketing and advertising to sell their commodities or goods. CCT analyzes these media products and how they are interpreted by their audience. CCT conceptualizes a highly articulated system of interconnected commercial images, objects and texts, to analyze their meanings and how these impact personal and collective identities and consumer behavior. Culture is, after all, a series of interconnections that form the arena of everyday meaning and action for individuals. These connections may be based on local cultures, but they are also global, managed by transnational capital and media.

Consumer Culture. CCT has not been able to consolidate a single theory to encompass all of these phenomena. It is extremely difficult to encompass such a variety within one theoretical framework. Human beings are complex and cultures vary greatly. Moreover, the markets are embedded within a complicated network of political, cultural, and economic imperatives that influence a wide variety of consumer behaviors. In fact, each individual is likely to engage in different consumer behaviors within the span of a day. Therefore, one single theory would not be able to capture and explain it all.

What has been done, however, is an attempt to define specifics of what conforms a phenomeon for CCT study. Katarzyna Krot and Ewa Glinska (2014) have proposed that in contemporary CCT, a phenomenon should have the following conditions to be considered a consuming culture:

• a substantial portion of a population that consumes at a level substantially above subsistence;
• exchange dominates self-production of objects of consumption;
• consuming is accepted as an appropriate and desirable activity;
• people judge others and themselves in terms of their consuming lifestyles.

In addition, contemporary consumption is characterized by ever-expanding consumer choice—or product variety—a deepening sense of shopping as a leisure activity, and the pervasive presence of advertising in most aspects of daily life. All societies have expectations of its members. In a strong consumer culture, according to CCT, the expectation is that consumers should always react positively to market invitations to consume.

Contemporary cultures are increasingly multicultural, and marketers have recognized this. Moreover, lifestyles are as varied as cultural identities. This has complicated marketing possibilities, and firms have responded by creating a wide array of identity brands that may appeal to different segments of the population. For marketers, then, understanding lifestyle choices as well as individual and collective identities, has become of paramount importance, so that ethnographic methods and market studies have increasingly become part of the CCT landscape.

Nevertheless, it is important to note that rather than focus on market behavior, CCT research emphasizes different aspects of consumer behavior. For example, CCT looks at how consumers process symbolic codes—the embedded meanings—in advertisements, commercials, shop window displays, brands, and the commodities themselves and, how coded meanings contribute to their identities and lifestyles. Academically, CCT has been divided into four large areas of research in order to study the social structures and processes related to the previously mentioned consumer behaviors: consumer identity, market cultures, social patterns of consumption, and mass-mediated market ideologies and consumer meaning-making strategies.

Consumer cultures, especially in the Western world, emphasize the ideal of individual free choice and the formation of collective identities through consuming practices and the acquisition of specific brands and products. In fact, free choice is one of the ideological pillars of consumer society. Paradoxically, according to critics, consumers are expected to express individuality and difference—to exercise their freedom of choice—through the goods they purchase or consume. A consumer culture, then, is heavily dependent upon a particular ideology—or set of ideas that explain the world to us. This ideological process is not without its conflict and tensions, as a consumer behavior may enter into conflict with other personal or collective values, expectations, or goals (Hartmann & Brunk, 2015).

Social Pressures. CCT scholars examine how this relationship with a global, capitalist marketplace—the tension between the push to consume and opposing social pressures—influences the creation of identity. Consuming in general and the acquisition of specific goods in particular contribute to a socially acceptable image. Some critics argue that in a consumer society, people “purchase” their identity; that is, they create an identity based on the reactions of others to one’s consuming behavior. According to some CCT scholars, the emphasis on consumption in a consumer society has caused many individuals to base their sense of identity and self-worth on their ability to consume. This, for many, is understood as “normal life” and is directly tied to pleasure and personal well-being.

The ability to comply with the ever-growing exigencies of consumer culture becomes a condition of full membership in society. Consumer cultures, then, marginalize those who cannot participate fully in approved consuming behaviors. In a consumer culture, individuals seek the approval of others by consuming—and consuming the “right” products. The approval and the consuming behavior of others, as well as the media, become sources of information about norms or social expectations. Norms are important guidelines to social functioning; much of social behavior is based on norms. The inability to comply with these norms places individuals at risk of negative experiences, such as rejection, contempt, social disapproval, and feelings of shame.

Nevertheless, there are those who deviate with the type of consuming behavior expected in a consumer culture. Among the principal reasons for this are personal choice—an individual may feel disinclined to participate in a consumer culture—and economic disadvantage.

There have been few studies conducted in consumer personality traits that lead some people away from a consumer culture, although the topic has been garnering research interest. For example, a personality trait such as agreeableness may predispose an individual toward consuming more, in order to comply with social norms and expectations. Consumers with a different personality trait might therefore be more likely to contravene the consumer behavior expected in a consumer culture and deviate from it (Voyer, 2014).

Individuals might also opt out of a consumer culture due to personal beliefs. Other studies, however, have focused on the effects on individuals who do not participate fully in a consumer culture because of poverty or lack of sufficient funds to do so. All of these are also important areas of study in the CCT field.

Further Insights

It is important to note that not all cultures are consumer cultures. The concept of “consumer culture” is specifically related to capitalism and the drive to spend money on commodities or consumer goods. Most experts consider the United States as the best example of a consumer culture.

In a consumer culture, most of its members feel the call to consume. Consumption does not recognize differences in gender, age, or socioeconomic status. Everybody is faced with pervasive media exposure, such as advertising and commercials, which stoke the social drive to buy. Media products are all didactic—they provide instructions on how to acquire and consume in order to attain a desirable status. Media images are aesthetic and inviting, offering visions of happiness, pleasure, and well-being. Finally, in a consumer culture, consuming is posited as a social obligation and an important means of building self-esteem. Those who do not participate may see themselves as failures or develop feelings of inferiority, marginalization, or exclusion.

CCT is also interested in learning about those who fall outside the margins of consumer cultures. People who do not participate in consumer cultures may do so out of personal preference; but others do so because they do not have adequate resources to participate. If participating in a consumer culture is considered “normal” life, lack of sufficient resources to participate in it may cause people to feel deprived, barred from enjoying all the pleasurable experiences of consumer society.

Cases such as these belie the idea that free choice is at the root of consumer culture. Moreover, consuming for low-income people remains largely rational and utilitarian, limited to immediate needs and often having to choose between pressing needs and those that are less urgent. In other words, free choice is not something available to all.

Issues

CCT does not focus solely on the way people consume popular commodities. Sustainability, for example, has become a key concept in modern consumer culture. Societies around the world increasingly face the fact that the future of humankind, at current rates of consumption, is at serious risk. Much of this risk is driven by consumer behavior. For example, experts explain that approximately 150 million consumers enter the middle classes every year. That is, they increase their spending power. By 2030, experts estimate, 60 percent of the population worldwide will have entered into the middle class and, in consequence, consume more global resources. The demand for water will surpass the supply, and energy demand will increase by 40 percent (World Economic Forum, 2013).

Food consumption is also a growing problem. People are increasingly urban—rural populations decrease while city dwellers increase. Therefore, people break away from home-based food production systems—that is, from growing food gardens, raising farm animals, and hunting. In cities, food is usually acquired from markets, increasing the demand for the mass production of food. As global food consumption rises, it will overtake production rates, driving up the demand for plentiful and inexpensive food. Corporate agricultural businesses have become the norm, leading to a host of environmental problems, as well as undermining the viability of small farms. Small farms are better for the environment and their disappearance leaves many small producers unemployed. The massive production of food has caused grave problems worldwide, such as deforestation, over-fishing, and pollution.

As consumers have become better informed about these issues, they have changed their consumption practices. This has led to the rise of alternative models of consumer behavior. One of these is sustainable consumption. Sustainable consumption involves practices such as innovation, self-sufficiency, waste minimization, optimization of energy resources, recycling, and growing one’s own food. Because closeness to nature and self-sufficiency have not traditionally been part of modern consumer behaviors, these novel models are of interest to researchers and visionary marketers as well.

CCT scholars have also become interested in how consumer values interact with these global changes. Although it is still a relatively small movement, many individuals choose to follow less consumer-driven behaviors and allow personal values to guide their consumer actions. For example, experts have illuminated the ways in which ethical consumer choices influence the marketplace, driving companies to develop more ecologically sound practices. Individuals, then, may enact less-consumerist roles and values without abandoning consumer society; better informed and concerned about the world, they modify their consumption behavior and by doing so, alter the marketplace.

CCT views individuals as consumers but also as culture producers. Identity and status is not achieved solely by blindly following consumption norms, as some early theories posited. People partake of a cultural capital that is not related to consumption behavior alone. There are many shared norms and beliefs shared by in-groups, of which consuming is only one. Global and local initiatives, for example, have disseminated a growing economic, ecological, and political consciousness and a drive for new approaches to production and consumption. Experts warn that drastically reducing consumption would have an adverse effect on local and global economies; therefore, a balance must exist. The search is on for ways in which to create sustainable and inclusive consumption behaviors, so that nobody is involuntarily excluded and resource scarcity does not reach a critical point.

Terms & Concepts

Consumers: Individuals who use or purchase goods and services.

Cultural Capital: Non-tangible social assets that provide status and aid social mobility, such as education, manners, forms of expression, and cultural preferences.

Ideology: Sets of ideas and beliefs that provide a lens by which to understand the world.

Mass Media: All communication technologies that reach a large audience.

Sustainable: The ability to function or be maintained long term.

Symbolic: Representative meanings disseminated by way of symbols, images, emblems, and other illustrative methods.

Theory: Ideas based on a set of general principles; usually these principles have been tested and aim to explain a situation or phenomenon.

Bibliography

Arnould, E. J., & Thompson, C. J. (2005). Consumer Culture Theory (CCT): Twenty years of research. Journal of Consumer Research, 31(4), 868–882. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=16337333&site=ehost-live

Hartmann, B. J., & Brunk, K. H. (2015). Negotiating the merger of contrasting consumer cultures: Ideological myth and identity. Advances in Consumer Research, 43, 358–363.

Holt, D. B. (2002). Why do brands cause trouble? A dialectical theory of consumer culture and branding. Journal of Consumer Research, 29(1), 70–90. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bsu&AN=6789004&site=ehost-live

Krot, K., & Glińska, E. (2014). Economic exclusion of older consumers in Poland in the context of consumer culture theory. Economics & Management / Ekonomia I Zarzadzanie, 6(1), 57–78.

Voyer, P. (2015). Consumer proclivity for sustainable consumption: A social normative approach. Advances in Consumer Research, 43, 421–427.

Voyer, P. (2014). Consumer propensity to deviate: Scale development and validation. Advances in Consumer Research, 42, 735.

Welté, J. (2015). Consumption and identity in arduous situations how the adaptation of travel practices among very elderly people modifies their identity. Advances in Consumer Research, 43, 428–432.

Yundong, H. (2016). Global Consumer Culture Positioning (GCCP): Reviews and conceptual framework. Journal of International Business Research, 15(1), 56–62.

Suggested Reading

Belk, R., Price, L., & Penaloza, L. (Eds.). (2013). Consumer culture theory. West Yorkshire, UK: Emerald Group Publishing.

Block, P., Brueggemann, W., & McKnight, J. (2016) An other kingdom: Departing the consumer culture. Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

Palmås, K. (2015). Inauthentically intense: Coveillance and consumer culture among speedsurfers. Surveillance & Society, 13(3/4), 487–496. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=110711247&site=ehost-live

Puetz, K. (2015). Consumer culture, taste preferences, and social network formation. Sociology Compass, 9(6), 438–449. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=102989698&site=ehost-live

Sassatelli, R. (2015). Consumer culture, sustainability and a new vision of consumer sovereignty. Sociologia Ruralis, 55(4), 483–496. Retrieved October 23, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Sociology Source Ultimate. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sxi&AN=110259766&site=ehost-live