Achievement Gap

The achievement gap refers to the disparities in academic performance between students from majority populations and those from minority backgrounds, often linked to socioeconomic status. This gap is evident in various educational metrics, including high school graduation rates and standardized test scores, where minority groups typically underperform compared to their white counterparts. Multicultural education is one proposed solution aimed at addressing these disparities by fostering an inclusive curriculum that embraces diversity, emphasizes critical thinking, and enhances human relations. Despite legislative efforts, such as the No Child Left Behind Act and its successor, the Every Student Succeeds Act, progress in closing the achievement gap has been slow. Factors contributing to the achievement gap include cultural and linguistic differences, teacher biases, and the impacts of societal issues like oppression and marginalization. To be effective, educators are encouraged to develop cultural competence and implement targeted programs that support the unique needs of all students. By understanding and addressing these nuances, there is potential for improvement in educational outcomes for marginalized groups.

Published in: 2021

By: McFeeters, Belinda B.

Subject Terms

Achievement Gap

Abstract

Multicultural education is an educational approach that encourages diversity and equality: the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and other cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations. The achievement gap in education refers to systematic variances in the ability to learn between students from majority populations and students from minority populations. Today, efforts are being made to raise student achievement across the board and close the achievement gap.

Overview

Multicultural education is an educational approach that integrates four factors into a curriculum to encourage diversity and equality: the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, & Dupuis, 2004). Educators have continually been encouraged to incorporate multicultural education into their curriculums; however, the manner in which they have responded to the racial, cultural, and linguistic shifts in student demographics has not been sufficient. As a result, a lack of cultural competence has left some students less prepared to achieve than others (Brown, 2007).

The achievement gap in education refers to systematic variances in learning ability between students from majority populations and students from minority populations (i.e. the disparity between students from high income families and students from low income families). The most significant effort made by the federal government to improve the nation's schools and student learning is the 2002 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA). Congress initially passed the first act in 1965 in conjunction with President Lyndon Johnson's Great Society initiatives. Since then, every four or five years the Act has been reauthorized, each time expanding its scope (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, & Dupuis, 2004).

The ESEA was largely designed to address the achievement gap in multicultural education. However, improvement in the academic performances of poor and minority students has been slow over the last forty years. With President George W. Bush's lead, the 2002 reauthorization of the ESEA denoted a significant departure grounded in the mission of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB) (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, & Dupuis, 2004). NCLB was a federal plan instituted in 2001 with the intention of making schools more responsive to the needs of students. As such, it called for schools to make annual gains in test scores. Its goal was to raise students' achievement levels to meet state-defined standards by the year 2014. It places an emphasis on educational quality and accountability, defining quality teaching as "effective knowledge and teaching of content area as well as classroom management skills." (Morrier, Irving, Dandy, Dmitriyev, & Ukeje, 2007, p. 32; Obiakor, 2007).

Raising student achievement across the board and eliminating the achievement gap between students from different backgrounds were key purposes of the NCLB. Almost 2,100 pages of the NCLB directive provided initiatives and directives for states and school districts. Though NCLB emphasized accountability, a focus on cultural understanding was not included in the mandate (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick, & Dupuis, 2004). Some students were still left behind, thereby furthering an achievement gap for multicultural education learners, even at the beginning of their education.

NCLB was due for revision in 2007, but schools and teachers found that the law's requirements were increasingly untenable. In 2012, the administration of President Barack Obama began to allow states flexibility to develop their own plans for closing achievement gaps in lieu of adhering to certain requirements of NCLB. In 2015, President Obama signed the Every Student Succeeds Act (ESSA) with the goal of "fully preparing all students for success in college and careers" (US Dept. of Education). ESSA replaces NCLB and reauthorizes the ESEA.

Describing the Gap. The U.S. Census shows appreciable differences between the academic achievements of racial groups. According to census data prepared by the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2016, among African Americans aged twenty-five to twenty-nine, 91.1 percent had graduated from high school, and 22.7 percent had a bachelor’s degree. Among Hispanics aged twenty-five to twenty-nine, 80.6 percent had graduated from high school, and 18.7 percent had a bachelor’s degree. In contrast, among whites aged twenty-five to twenty-nine in 2016, 95.2 percent had graduated from high school, and 42.9 percent had a bachelor’s degree. Asian Americans had a comparable high-school completion rate to whites, at 96.8 percent, but outpaced all other groups in attainment of undergraduate degrees, at 65.6 percent (National Center for Education Statistics, 2016).

In almost every academic subject, African American and Hispanic children continue to perform at lower levels in comparison to their white counterparts. On the 2015 National Assessment of Educational Progress (NEAP), 44 percent of white students versus 16 percent of African American and 21 percent of Hispanic students in eighth grade scored at or above proficient in reading. Similar statistics were noted for math scores: Forty-three percent of white students, 13 percent of African American students, and 19 percent of Hispanic students in eighth grade were considered proficient or better.

Though these disparities are real and well-known, they do not receive much attention from mandates like No Child Left Behind. Processes within these mandates do not consider cultural and linguistic differences in students when it comes to assessment, placement, categorization, or instruction (Obiakor, 2007).

The achievement gap in multicultural education also influences the number of children placed in special education programs (Obiakor, 2007). The National Center for Education Statistics suggests that there is some disproportion in public school enrollment and special education placements for minority groups. For example, African Americans represent 20 percent of special education placements, even though they represent approximately 17 percent of general public school enrollments. On the other hand, white students represent 43 percent of special education placements, while they make up 67 percent of general public school enrollments (cited in Obiakor, 2007).

Further Insights

Because many factors can influence achievement gaps in multicultural education, they must be considered prior to completing any formal assessments for a child. Educators must acknowledge students' diverse cultural experiences and respond appropriately.

Language. Language is one factor that influences achievement gaps, particularly for Hispanic American students. Language is an important part of classroom instruction and plays an integral role in this setting. Hispanic students tend to view language as a unique part of their culture since they may switch between their native language, English, and a combination of both (Delgado & Rogers-Adkinson, 1999). Smitherman (2001) and Williams (1975) report that in urban, suburban, and rural schools, some of the languages students bring with them conflict with Standard English, making it difficult for these students to communicate with others. In addition, some African American children use Ebonics, or African American Vernacular English, a nonstandard form of English, to communicate in the classroom. Obiakor (2007) suggests that to appropriately evaluate the type of educational assistance a child needs, general and special educators must have a good understanding of students' linguistic skills and cultural environments.

Teachers. Teachers also play a significant role in the achievement gap between minority and majority students. As a result of cultural biases, some teachers judge the behavior of minority students more deviant than that of majority students (Grossman, 2002; Sbarra & Pianta, 2001). Though parents rely on teachers to identify disabilities and areas of challenge for students, some teachers selectively exclude children who they feel are "different," and place them in special education classes (Skrtic, 2003; Utley & Obiakor, 2001). This behavior increases the achievement gap in multicultural learners.

General and special education teachers should seek appropriate training to ensure that they are culturally competent and can meet the needs of all their students. They should be creative with the design of their classrooms and curriculums, so that they can create a welcoming atmosphere for students, parents, and staff. Teachers should also learn about teaching methods that will support diverse groups of students to ensure that each child has a positive learning experience (Obiakor, 2007). These skills are necessary to avoid inappropriately labeling a student through a lack of cultural understanding, as labeling also plays a role in the level of achievement a student reaches.

Labeling. Labeling can cause students to make incorrect assumptions about their own abilities (Obiakor, 1999). In many cases, students internalize the labels they are given and may act out according to these labels. Though some scholars argue that labels are needed to convey information to new teachers and other educators, they often end up influencing the multicultural achievement gap, causing students to continue to lag behind (Obiakor, 2007; Ysseldyke, Algozzine & Thurlow, 2000). Inappropriately labeling students can skew students' achievement levels and cause educators and students themselves to undervalue their abilities. For example, a teacher may believe that a student labeled mentally disabled cannot perform certain tasks. If this is the case, the labeled child may not be pushed to increase his or her abilities and thus be limited to a life of lowered expectations and minimal performance levels (Obiakor, 2007).

Social Influences. Lastly, many students from minority groups come to school with a history of oppression, marginalization, and racism that they have dealt with all their lives. These experiences may have occurred in general society, as well as in American education systems (Mitcham-Smith, 2007). Negative psychosocial stresses can be associated with these experiences (Carr, 2003; Zimmerman, 1995), causing low self-esteem and other mental health problems (Carr, 2003; Duran & Duran, 1995; Hanna et al., 2000; Potts, 2003). These factors influence student achievement and, in turn, impact the achievement gap for multicultural learners.

Teachers and other educators tend to be of the majority race, with ethnocentric and Americanized experiences and training. Unfortunately, when these educators have no multicultural education training, they are more prone to misunderstand cultural characteristics of students. Educators must understand these factors so that they may appropriately assess students' educational levels and achievements (Mitcham-Smith, 2007).

Viewpoints

Closing the Achievement Gap by Enhancing School Guidance Programs. Many scholars have suggested a number of ways in which the multicultural education achievement gap may be closed.

Counselors are among the educators that tend to lack cultural competence and be ill-prepared to serve multicultural learners. For this reason, they have received a number of accountability mandates (Dahir, 2004; Dahir & Stone, 2003; Myrick, 2003; Paisley & McMahon, 2001). Legislators recognize that educators need to possess cultural competence not only for academic purposes, but also for serving students' nonacademic needs (Brown, 2007).

Mitcham-Smith (2007) suggests that a comprehensive school guidance program's use of empowerment theory will support efforts to close the achievement gap for minority and underrepresented groups of students, including gay/lesbian students, students with disabilities, and students of color. These are the students who are often at risk for being forgotten or underserved. Empowerment theory refers to the act of enhancing the personal, interpersonal, and political power of individuals, families, and communities so that they have the tools to take action and improve their circumstances (Gutierrez, 1995).

Multicultural scholars and feminist theorists were the first to introduce empowerment theory and advocate for social justice in the counseling field (Lee, 1991; Lyddon, 1998). The origin of empowerment theory, however, lies in Paulo Freire's educational theory. Freire was a Brazilian scholar and educator who built a research and teaching agenda around the struggle of helping oppressed and marginalized groups experience true equality (Demmitt & Oldenski, 1999). He focused on the individuality of oppressed people and their learning deficiencies (Freire, 1970). His teaching style has been described as empowerment for the oppressed, because his pedagogy used reflection and action to help underrepresented groups transform their oppressors (Demmitt & Oldenski, 1999). The introduction of empowerment theory into education generated more interest in multicultural counseling and the need to examine oppression in oppressed and marginalized communities (Lee, 1991).

If more professional school counselors apply Paulo Freire's empowerment theory to their work, their perspectives on marginalized students and their work with them may be better shaped to serve them. These changes could also result in a systemic effect that encourages schools to create a school climate that embraces empowerment and supports access and equal opportunity for all students (Mitcham-Smith 2007).

Several factors must be considered to successfully apply the empowerment theory to the work of school counselors. The first involves one's desire to empower. Mitcham-Smith (2007) suggests that professional school counselors must see empowerment as their key role, and they must want to empower students from marginalized populations. Second, school counselors must be socially conscious. They must have an interest in eliminating oppression and discrimination. Next, professional school counselors should have high self-efficacy in their roles as counselors, and should be comfortable assuming roles as agents for social change and advocates for students. Fourth, counselors must encourage principals and administrators to make the empowerment of minority students a top priority. Lastly, professional school counselors must place value on professional development initiatives so that they and other educators may learn how to support and empower minority students. Professional school counselors can help close the achievement gap if they engage in professional counselor duties and deliver a comprehensive multicultural school guidance program that advocates for all students.

Closing the Achievement Gap by Focusing on Student Success Skills. Various efforts to increase student academic achievement have proved to be successful. Among the most successful is the Student Success Skills (SSS) program, an intervention program targeting low-achieving students, many of which are African American or Hispanic (Miranda, Webb, Brigman, & Peluso, 2007). School counselors work with teachers to implement this program. The theoretical basis of the SSS program focuses on three skill sets associated with improved academic and social outcomes: cognitive and metacognitive skills, social skills, and self-management skills (Hattie, Biggs, & Purdie, 1996; Masten & Coatsworth, 1998; Wang, Haertel, & Walberg, 1994; Elias et al., 2003; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004).

Cognitive and metacognitive skills include the ability to set goals, monitor progress, and remember different techniques (Elias et al., 2003; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). Students are given the "Seven Keys to Course Mastery" tool, which teaches them how to identify their successes, patterns, and any areas that need improvement. With the direction of an educator, this tool also teaches them how to develop improvement plans to enhance their skills. The cognitive and metacognitive aspects of the program also require counselors to work with teachers to teach students study skills. Students are taught how to identify the most important information in their readings and how to organize this information so that it can be easily studied and remembered (Miranda, Webb, Brigman, & Peluso, 2007).

The social skills aspect of the SSS program teaches students interpersonal, social, problem-solving, listening, and teamwork skills (Elias et al., 2003; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). Students learn to listen, speak positively about themselves, and encourage their peers. They also learn to identify improvements toward their goals, no matter how small. They practice these skills during the SSS program and are encouraged and reinforced throughout the session (Miranda, Webb, Brigman & Peluso, 2007).

Finally, students learn self-management skills such as managing attention, motivation, and anger (Elias et al., 2003; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). These skills help students establish their own "safe place." They are taught to improve test performance through the use of breathing techniques, positive self-talk, and music (Miranda, Webb, Brigman, & Peluso, 2007).

Researchers who have found connections between social and emotional competence and achievement also support the use of the Student Success Skills program. They, too, report positive outcomes for students who are academically at risk (Elias et al., 2003; Marzano, Pickering, & Pollack, 2001; Zins, Weissberg, Wang, & Walberg, 2004). Overwhelmingly, experimental studies have proven that the SSS program is effective at closing the multicultural achievement gap for at-risk students (Brigman & Campbell, 2003; Brigman et al., 2007; Campbell & Brigman, 2005; Webb et al., 2005; Miranda, Webb, Brigman, & Peluso, 2007).

Terms & Concepts

Accountability: The practice of holding teachers, administrators, and school board members responsible for either the performance of students or the appropriate use of educational funds.

Achievement Gap: The systematic variances in performance measures between students from majority populations and students from minority populations

Brown v. Board of Education: The 1954 Supreme Court case in which the court declared that separating the educational facilities of African American and white students is illegal.

Cultural Incompetence: The inability to effectively understand and relate to the cultures and values of others.

Culture: Socially driven ways of thinking, believing, feeling, and acting within a group of individuals that are passed on from generation to generation.

Curriculum: The planned educational activities offered by a school or institution that take place over a specified period of time.

Diversity: The range of differences among people, communities, and families created by cultural and ethnic backgrounds, physical abilities, and academic abilities.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA): An act established by Congress to improve the nation's schools and students' learning. It was initially established in 1965 and has been reauthorized every four or five years since.

Empowerment Theory: The practice of enhancing the personal, interpersonal, and political power of individuals, families, and communities so that they have the tools to take action and improve their circumstances

Equality: The state of fairness and justice across individual differences.

General Education: Learning experiences centered on core subjects that are designed to teach students the skills and knowledge they will need to function in society.

Marginalize: To limit a person or thing to the fringes, thereby diminishing significance.

Multicultural Education: Multicultural education is an educational approach that integrates four factors into a curriculum to encourage diversity and equality: the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB): NCLB is the 2001 reauthorization of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act; it called for schools to make annual gains in test scores at a pace that will allow all students to meet state-defined standards by the year 2014.

Self-Efficacy: The belief that one's personal efforts as an educator can positively influence learners.

Special Education: Programs and services offered to students who have unique intellectual, physical, emotional, or social needs that require non-standard instructional methods.

Teacher Preparation Programs: Courses of study that prepare candidates to become certified teachers within the K–12 school system. Programs offer candidates specific courses in general education, subject matter preparation, professional education, special seminars and colloquia, and other opportunities for practical field experiences.

Underrepresented: The state of being inadequately represented in proportion to a general population.

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Achievement Gap

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Achievement Gap

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