Adult Education as Social Capital

Adult education as social capital refers to the ongoing process of learning that many adults engage in throughout their lives, enhancing both personal and societal outcomes. Approximately half of adults over 16 participate in educational programs, ranging from professional development and skill acquisition to personal interest courses and formal qualifications like diplomas and degrees. This pursuit of knowledge not only enriches individual lives but also improves overall quality of life by providing better job opportunities and social mobility.

In a broader context, adult education contributes significantly to societal advancement by increasing human capital. As individuals acquire new skills and knowledge, they become more competitive within the global economy, benefiting not only themselves but also the organizations they work for. Employers often recognize the value of continued education by encouraging or funding these initiatives to ensure their workforce remains current in a rapidly changing job market. Furthermore, through adult education, individuals can expand their social networks, gaining access to new resources and support systems. Overall, the trend toward lifelong learning is seen as a positive force for both individuals and society at large, fostering greater resilience and adaptability in an ever-evolving world.

Published in: 2021

By: Wienclaw, Ruth A.

Subject Terms

Adult Education as Social Capital

Many adults find learning to be a life-long process, and continue to take courses and learn new skills throughout their lifetimes. Nearly half of all adults over the age of 16 participate in some kind of education program by taking work-related or personal interest courses, pursuing a diploma or degree, or participating in other educational activities. In addition, many career fields require continuing education for their members so that they can stay current with state-of-the-art theories, techniques, and practices. Similarly, many employers not only actively encourage continuing education, but pay for some or all educational activities that are relevant to the job. Adult education and life-long learning are important not only for the individual who participates in such activities, but for society as well. At an individual level, adult education can contribute to the quality of a person's life. At a societal level, better education means greater human capital which allows a society to be competitive in the global marketplace and become or remain a world leader.

RESEARCH STARTERS

ACADEMIC TOPIC OVERVIEWS

Educational Sociology > Adult Education as Social Capital

Overview

For many people, learning is a life-long process. Not content with the three R's of elementary school, the career preparation of high school, or even the major of college and university, many people go on to read voraciously, take continuing education classes, or even acquire other degrees in an attempt to increase their fund of knowledge. Others who were not fortunate enough to have learned the basics that are typically taught early in one's scholastic career go back to school to overcome illiteracy, obtain a general education development (GED) diploma, or get other credentials that will help them in their jobs or careers or even to change careers. Still other adults watch the technological advances enjoyed by younger people and are determined to keep up, learning to use computers, the Internet, and other technological artifacts in an effort to keep their minds active. In fact, according to the National Center for Education Statistics, nearly half of all adults over the age of 16 participate in some kind of education program (see Figure 1.)

The Importance of Continued Learning

Adult education and life-long learning are important not only for the individual who participates in such activities, but for society as well. From the individual's point of view, adult education in it many varieties can add significantly to the person's quality of life. Professionally, for example, continuing education courses can help an individual keep abreast of the latest research, techniques, and practices in his/her chosen field, thereby adding to the individual's worth as social capital and the concomitant ability to be successful on the job or in the career field. For those with less formal education, adult education can also give one the credentials needed to get a better job or enter a more prestigious career, thereby enhancing one's chances of upward social mobility, higher socioeconomic status, and better quality of life. For example, many adults who dropped out of school before graduation from high school later realize that many of the opportunities they would like to take advantage of are closed to them because of their lack of educational credentials. For this reason, many go back and earn a GED diploma, finish college, or gain other credentials that are needed for job or career success. Even when adult education is not in a career-related field, it can add to the quality of one's life and even one's health by keeping one's mind active and helping one relax from the stress in other parts of life. Further, whether adult education be undertaken for the purpose of social advancement on the job or for enhancing the quality of one's personal life, individuals can also gain increased social capital and widen their network of friends and acquaintances through educational activities.

Adult education is advantageous to society as well. Many adults go back to school or take continuing education classes in order to keep up with the rapid advances in technology that are used in the workplace. In recognition of the fact that the job skills acquired through continuing education can enable the organization to be more competitive in the global marketplace, many organizations encourage or even require employees to take job-related continuing education classes. Many even pay for these courses. The education of individuals within society provides the society with greater human capital which enables it to be more competitive in the global marketplace. In addition, the concomitant wealth and information that are accrued with the increase in education and knowledge help the society to be more powerful and influential as compared to less educated societies.

Applications

Adult Education in Correctional Facilities

A highly specified environment which illustrates the use and value of adult education is within the US correctional facility. There are several general types of adult education programs in correctional facilities.

* General education programs include the adult basic education curriculum, preparation for the general education development diploma, and other secondary education courses.

* Vocational education courses help inmates learn a trade or other practical skills so that they can more easily obtain a job once they are released from prison.

* Postsecondary courses allow prisoners to take College-level courses and pursue degrees.

* Life skills curricula can comprise any number of practical skills for living on one's own including managing one's money and financial planning; resume writing, job search, and interview skills; meal management and housekeeping skills; workplace etiquette; and violence reduction and moral reasoning.

* In addition, an increasing number of correctional institutions are finding the need for English as a second language (ESL) programs for nonnative speakers of English.

Although each course has individual objectives, the overarching goal for all educational programs in correctional institutions is to help prisoners obtain skills and credentials that will enable them to be effective, productive members of society once they are released and to reduce the recidivism rate. Whether or not these programs meet this goal, however, has been debated in the literature. Some researchers conclude that all attempts at education in correctional institutions are of value and help reduce the recidivism rate. Other researchers conclude that none of these programs is useful in achieving this goal.

Program Success

Jensen and Reed (2006) performed a secondary analysis of the adult basic education program, the general equivalency diploma program, completion of secondary education, vocational education, postsecondary education, and life skills programming to determine whether any of these programs work with today's correctional institution populations. Data for the study were found by performing key word searches of bibliographic sources including the Criminal Justice Abstracts from 1995 through 2003, various related refereed journals, the National Criminal Justice Reference Service, ERIC, and PsycINFO. To reduce the possibility of false negatives of false positives, the studies were reviewed and evaluated for methodological rigor using a priori principles developed by the University of Maryland. Studies were categorized into five levels. Level 5 comprised the most scientifically rigorous studies with characteristics that included random assignment of subjects to treatment and control groups and use of sufficient subjects for the results to be meaningfully analyzed using inferential statistics. Level 1 comprised the least scientifically rigorous studies. Level 1 studies did not have comparison groups and did not control for alternate explanations. Using these criteria, the pool of potential studies was reduced to include only studies that were categorized as Levels 3 through 5. Level 2 studies were included as a measure of the "preponderance of evidence." Limiting the studies analyzed in this way allowed the researchers to rule out alternative explanations for study findings. The dependent variable used in the analysis was recidivism rate. Program results were sorted into five categories:

* What works (i.e., programs reasonably certain to reduce recidivism and which should be applicable to other situations);

* What is promising research (i.e., analyses that do not yield results that can be generalized but that show promise for future research studies);

* What is a promising program (i.e., programs that did not reduce recidivism in the given study but which may show promise in other situations);

* What does not work (i.e., studies which failed to reduce recidivism and which are unlikely to reduce recidivism in other contexts), and;

* What is unknown (i.e., programs that do not fit into any of the other categories).

Using the University of Maryland criteria, six adult basic education, GED programming, and completion of a secondary education programs were included in the study. Five of the studies indicated that education at this level is effective in reducing recidivism. Of the thirteen vocational education programs evaluated in the study, the findings of the analysis were less clear. Of the six studies in this grouping that reached a category level of three or above, all demonstrated reduced recidivism rates for participants. A meta-analysis included in this group also supported the hypothesis that vocational education reduces recidivism. In the category of postsecondary education, three Level 3 programs were included along with two meta analyses, a multistate Level 4 study, and a Level 2 study. Analysis of these studies supported the hypothesis that postsecondary education reduces recidivism rates. However, the authors note that this finding may result not from the effects of the education itself, but from the motivation of students at this level. Finally, the data from available studies on the effectiveness of life skills educational programs in reducing recidivism rates did not reach a level that would facilitate meaningful analysis, so no conclusions were drawn.

English as a Second Language

An area of adult education in correctional institutions that was not covered by the Jensen and Reed secondary analysis was ESL programs and, in fact, not all jurisdictions even offer ESL programs to inmates. Yet, according to Bureau of Justice Statistics (BoJS) from 2003, nearly 91,000 inmates incarcerated in state and federal facilities were not citizens of the United States. This was an increase of nearly 2,000 from the previous year. In 2011, the total of number of non-US citizens held reached just under 103,000 inmates (BoJS & Carson, 2013). Demographic trends for correctional institutions indicate that the number of non-native English speakers who are incarcerated in correctional institutions is continuing to grow. Life skills, vocational training, and the other types of education programs reviewed by Jensen and Reed are as important to reduce recidivism in the non-native English speaking population as they are for native English speakers. However, without a basic literacy level in English, life skills, vocational training, and general and advanced education may be beyond the reach of many members of the non-native English speaking population.

DelliCarpini (2006) analyzed the pedagogical requirements for developing English as a second language programs for correctional institutions. Although it is often assumed that English language development must precede literacy development, she recommends that students be engaged in meaningful reading and writing from the beginning of their educational experience. One of the primary goals of teaching English skills to non-native speakers in correctional institutions is to help students acquire basic literacy skills quickly and effectively so that they can meaningfully apply their new skills in the boarder sociocultural context. This will help them not only gain educational tools that will help them be successful after release from prison, but also give them the necessary skills to help them survive within the prison population (e.g., reading signs, understanding orders).

There are several considerations that need to be taken into account when designing curricula and educational programs for use with non-native English speakers in correctional institutions. In order to help ensure that such programs are effective, designers need to bear in mind that inmates have similar interests to those of other people in their age group. In addition, the goal of literacy programs in correctional institutions is not only to improve the literacy levels of inmates, but also to help them become more functional in the English-speaking world as a way to reduce recidivism. It is also particularly important to set realistic goals for education in this setting. Frequently, inmates have had negative experiences with education in the past, often because of learning disabilities (diagnosed or undiagnosed) that make learning difficult for them. Statistics show that between 30 and 50 percent of those incarcerated in correctional institutions have learning disabilities as opposed to only 5 to 15 percent of individuals within the general adult population. Therefore, initial gains in literacy may be slower than those expected in other populations. In addition, those who are new to speaking and thinking in English may go through a period of days or even months in which they remain silent in the classroom as they learn to feel more comfortable in the new language.

It is not always possible to have a dedicated ESL program in a correctional institution. However, instructions in other educational programs can work with non-native speakers to help them not only increase their literacy levels but also to help them comprehend the material of the other course. This can be done in a number of ways. One way to do this is to help students acquire English language skills by helping them to use them in a real world context so that they are more motivated to learn. In addition, students who are struggling with literacy while in another educational program can be helped with various tools for native language support, including bilingual dictionaries and materials written in or translated into their native language. Another approach an instructor in a mainstream course can take to encourage non-native speakers is to focus on meaning rather than form. Grammatical proficiency takes years to perfect and emphasis on form when one is trying to learn meaning can be a frustrating experience. Teachers can also assist non-native speakers in learning by reading materials aloud as students follow along, using simple language that is easier for non-native speakers to comprehend or elaborating so that everyone can understand, using visual aids (e.g., graphs, pictures) to reinforce verbal concepts, and minimizing instruction to the entire group so that each literacy level can be taught appropriately and effectively.

Conclusion

The trend for continuing education and life-long learning is a positive one that benefits both the individual and society. Adult education takes many forms including obtaining diplomas and degrees and taking advantage of other formal educational opportunities missed when one was younger, continuing education to help one keep abreast of current theories, practices, and techniques in one's professional field, and informal education for personal enrichment. Education can improve the quality of one's life by opening doors for greater opportunities or by giving one skills that will help one personally. In today's Information Age with its emphasis on technology and the faster sharing of greater amounts of information than ever before, adult education has been on the rise with no sign of lessening. Adult education benefits not only the individual by offering new opportunities or a better quality of life, but also the society whose human capital is increased by the greater education of its members.

As illustrated by English as a second language programs, it is important to recognize that designing and conducting education programs for adults is different from designing and conducting educational programs for children. One of the goals of education for children is to socialize them to be able to function well in the real world. Although this can be a goal in some adult education programs such as life skills courses in correctional institutions, the same tactics of discipline and socialization will not have the same effect on adults and may even be counterproductive. In addition, for the most part, education programs for adults need to show relevance to the real world whether that be applicability for use on the job or as a way to enrich the learner's life. However, properly designed and conducted, adult education can add significantly to the quality of life of individuals as well as to the status of the society.

Terms & Concepts

Continuing Education: An education program designed to help professionals keep current with the latest tools, techniques, and practices of their chosen field; instructional courses designed to enable adult students to learn new skills on a parttime basis.

Control Group: A subset of participants in an experiment that does not receive the experimental condition (i.e., does not experience the manipulation of the independent variable). Control groups help researchers determine whether the observed results of a research study were due to the manipulation of the independent variable or some other factor.

Education: From a sociological perspective, education is a formal learning process in which some individuals take on the social role of teacher and others take on the social role of student. Globalization: Globalization is the process of businesses or technologies as they spread across the world. This creates an interconnected, global marketplace operating outside the constraints of time zones and national boundaries. Although globalization means an expanded marketplace, products are typically adapted to fit the specific needs of each locality or culture to which they are marketed.

Human Capital: The individual resources of workers such as knowledge, skills, abilities; training and education; and work experience. Human capital can be used to explain the differences in wages among different individuals.

Life-Long Learning (LLL): The integration of formal, nonformal, and informal education to allow individuals to continually develop and improve their quality of life. This is a continuous process that occurs throughout an individual's lifetime not only within traditional educational institutions but also in other societal institutions as well (e.g., family, community, religious organization, workplace).

Meta-Analysis: A secondary analysis technique used to synthesize the results of multiple existing quantitative research studies of a single phenomenon into a single result. Statistically, meta analysis combines the effect size estimates of the individual studies into a single estimated effect size or a distribution of effect sizes.

Quality of Life: The sense of well-being that an individual feels regarding His or her life circumstances and life style; the ability to enjoy one's normal life activities. As opposed to standard of living, quality of life is both intangible and subjective.

Recidivism: Lapsing back into previous patterns of behavior, in particular criminal behavior.

Secondary Analysis: A further analysis of existing data typically collected by a different researcher. The intent of secondary analysis is to use existing data in order to develop conclusions or knowledge in addition to or different from those resulting from the original analysis of the data. Secondary analysis may be qualitative or quantitative in nature and may be used by itself or combined with other research data to reach conclusions. Social Capital: The resources or benefits that people gain from the connections within and between their social networks.

Social Mobility: The movement of an individual between classes in a society over a period of time.

Society: A distinct group of people who live within the same territory, share a common culture and way of life, and are relatively independent from people outside the group. Society includes systems of social interactions that govern both culture and social organization.

Socioeconomic Status (SES): The position of an individual or group on the two vectors of social and economic status and their combination. Factors contributing to socioeconomic status include (but are not limited to) income, type and prestige of occupation, place of residence, and educational attainment.

Variable: An object in a research study that can have more than one value. Independent variables are stimuli that are manipulated in order to determine their effect on the dependent variables (response). Extraneous variables are variables that affect the response but that are not related to the question under investigation in the study.

Bibliography

Bureau of Justice Statistics & Carson, E. A. (2013). Reported number of non-U.S. citizens held in custody in federal or state prisons, December 31, 1998-2011. Retrieved November 5, 2013, from http://www.bjs.gov/index.cfm?ty=nps

Cho, R., & Tyler, J. (2013). Does prison-based adult basic education improve postrelease outcomes for male prisoners in Florida?. Crime & Delinquency, 59, 975-1005. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ssf&AN=90016541

DelliCarpini, M. (2006). Working with literacy-level English language learners in correctional education settings: Issues, challenges and best practices. The Journal of Correctional Education, 57 , 250-267. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=22681424&site=ehost-live

Finnie, R. (2012). Access to post-secondary education: The importance of culture. Children & Youth Services Review, 34, 1161-1170. Retrieved November 5, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ss f&AN=74497914

Jensen, E. L. & Reed, G. E. (2006). Adult correctional education programs: An update on current status based on recent studies. Journal of Offender Rehabilitation, 44 , 81-98. Retrieved June 23, 2008, from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=25122407&site=ehost-live

Schaefer, R. T. (2002). Sociology: A brief introduction (4th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Adult Education as Social Capital

On this Page

Subject Terms

Adult Education as Social Capital

Overview

The Importance of Continued Learning

Applications

Adult Education in Correctional Facilities

Program Success

English as a Second Language

Conclusion

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading