Adult Literacy Programs

This article presents information on adult literacy programs in the U.S. Literacy is defined as a skill base that includes numeracy acquisition, problem solving, and hinges upon one's functionality. The concept has evolved from the mere acquisition of reading and writing skills to a broader, more encompassing view of literacy that is based on an understanding of how adults function in today's society and the increasingly complex skill base required to perform successfully.

Keywords Adult and Experiential Learning; Adult Basic Education; Community-Based Adult Education; Family Literacy; Functional Literacy; Literacy Education

Overview

At one point in time, on a basic level, adult literacy was simply considered the acquisition of reading and writing skills that mature individuals needed in order to function in a developed society. However, according to the National Assessment of Adult Literacy, literacy today "is not a single skill or quality that one either possesses or lacks. Rather, it encompasses various types of skills that different individuals possess to varying degrees" ("National Assessment," 2007, p1). The Workforce Investment Act of 1998 determined that those types of skills might include "an individual's ability to read, write, speak in English, compute, and solve problems at levels of proficiency necessary to function on the job, in the family of the individual, and in society" ("Workforce," p. 127).

National Institute of Literacy

However, the National Institute for Literacy (NIL) recognizes that there are also "different levels and types of literacy, which reflect the ability to perform a wide variety of tasks using written materials that differ in nature and complexity" (White & Dillow, 2005, p. 3). For example, using the National Assessment of Adult Literacy (NAAL) instrument, the NIL was able to probe three specific literacy areas in adults: prose, document, and quantitative. Thus, the NAAL tasks reflect "a definition of literacy that emphasizes the use of written materials to function adequately in one's environment and develop as an individual" (White & Dillow, 2005, p. 3). Based on the premise that all adults in this country must perform certain literacy tasks in order to "adequately function," the NAAL measures "the ability of a nationally representative sample of adults to perform literacy tasks similar to those that they would encounter in their daily lives" (White & Dillow, 2005, p. 3). That task might well be the replication of one's ability to read a map, pay the telephone bill, balance a checkbook, or read and understand a few lines of poetry.

Defining Literacy

This broader view of literacy is a more balanced approach and integrates the increasing technology demands of society today, where the skills needed to function include, but far surpass, mere reading and writing. Adult literacy entails a certain proficiency that includes daily problem-solving and perhaps a level of maturity displayed by dialectical thinking or interpersonal savvy. In order to be considered even minimally 'literate,' a person has always needed to maintain a basic level of reading and writing proficiency. Yet, now that the concept itself is much broader in scope, as the world changes and advances, the issue is less one of definition, but more of a consensus as to how literacy might be measured in adults.

While the aforementioned definitions view literacy as one's ability to perform certain tasks in order to achieve certain goals, to develop self and, ultimately, to make one's way in society, these definitions would also seem to indicate that the skills needed to be literate can be readily acquired. Certainly, literacy in a traditional sense is basically about one's ability to read, write and function, but these skills are not acquired acontextually. Literacy is a set of skills required for one to successfully maneuver in society, and this type of successful maneuvering becomes ever more a complex notion, given our global economy and the impact of technology.

Adult Literacy

Researchers involved with the Literacy Practices of Adult Learners Study (1998), focused on and studied those literacy programs that best enabled adult students to read and write. These researchers want to categorize programs throughout the nation whose outcomes feature an adult learner who is encouraged to write and read consistently and with greater complexity. Consistency of the reading material and complexity of the matter become focal points and serve as a gauge or measure of literacy success.

The NIL also focuses on reading ability alone as a key component of literacy acquisition, but not the sole component. This organization's Adult Reading Components Study (ARCS) has produced an assessment tool based on 11 components that contribute to one's total reading and comprehension ability. A pattern or level of reading component is then revealed, since the overarching goal of one's reading is comprehension of that which was read.

Ultimately, literacy may be defined as a skill base that includes numeracy acquisition and problem solving for daily living, but also hinges upon functionality. This is akin to the NIL's three literacy categories mentioned previously: prose, document, and quantitative literacy. Prose literacy refers to the skill set needed to read and comprehend "continuous texts," such as editorials, news stories, and brochures. Document literacy refers to the knowledge required to use "noncontinuous texts" in various ways, such as maps, job applications, or payroll forms. Quantitative literacy would be required for prose or document literacy. It refers to the numbers embedded in certain printed matter, and the numeracy skills that may be required to determine how these numbers fit into the general scheme of the text. Thus, the literate individual is one who is able to meet literacy demands at home, in the workplace, and in the society by performing prose, document, and quantitative tasks (National Assessment of Adult Literacy, 2007).

Applications

Certain organizations, such as the Council for Adult and Experiential Learning (CAEL), a national non-profit organization that focuses on creating effective learning strategies for working adults, view literacy development through the dual lens of labor and access to postsecondary education. The Council, via its Adult Learning Focused Institution, seeks to help learning adults improve their literacy skills by helping to improve the colleges, universities, and employers who support these adult learners. The Council focuses on the distinct needs of today's adult learner who is unwilling or unable to emulate traditional-aged students either inside or outside the classroom. Adult students have unique needs, especially if they are employed (CAEL, 2006). One of these distinct needs is the recognition of and need for experiential and informal learning methods within the classroom, including assignments that draw upon skills adults use every day, such as composing a shopping list, reading a map, or partnering for mock interviews.

For several years, the concept of lifelong learning has entered the arena of adult literacy development, as well as popular culture. It has been embraced by many as the hallmark of maturity because, in our increasingly complex and layered society with its competitive economy and workforce, learning can never truly end. Thus, lifelong learning is critical for any adult who wishes to become and remain a knowledgeable and viable member of the expanding labor market and a democratic society. To be a literate adult becomes a dynamic concept.

According to the National Center for the Study of Adult Literacy and Learning (NCSALL), "More than 40 percent of working-age adults in the United States lack the skills and education needed to succeed in family, work, and community life today" (NCSALL, 2005, p1). Moreover, the Longitudinal Study of Adult Learning (LSAL) states that nontraditional adult students "with limited formal education, who left high school for whatever reason, are most in need of opportunity and encouragement for continued learning" (LSAL, 2007).

Yet, how are adult students provided with the opportunity to develop their literacy skills? Researchers with the 1998 Literacy Practices of Adult Learners Study focus on the kinds of literacy programs that best motivate adult students to read and write often and with greater complexity. However, the purpose or end result of literacy development is not always a simple matter with a single, common bottom line. Some adult program developers and educators view learning as an end unto itself, while others focus on learning as a path to social justice or personal transformation. Adult literacy then becomes a term with special interest and meaning for various groups with their distinct aims and methods.

Purposes & Practices

The purpose for most adult literacy programs be they formal or informal, is to encourage and develop the skills necessary for adults to function in society. The term 'function' has been used frequently, but adult learners engaged in literacy development courses are expected to use what they have learned outside of the classroom in ways that will better themselves, their families, and ultimately the community. Thus, the concept of being "functionally literate" comes into use.

Issues of pedagogy often inform an educator's practice. Brazilian educator Paulo Friere viewed education as a socially charged undertaking. Such educators view social justice as a goal of literacy development in adults. They believe that adult education programs should mirror a critical pedagogy that is focused on the individual, relevant to his or her cultural background, and yet is also socially empowering (Degener, 2001). This understanding of the purpose for adult literacy shapes the educator's practice.

Some educators and researchers, such as Mezirow (2003), view literacy education as primarily a personal, transformative experience that could ultimately lead to social action, but social action is not necessarily the aim. Other philosophies around adult education and adult literacy include the liberal school with its roots in the Greek philosophers and focus on the western canon; the humanist philosophy with its emphasis on humanistic or Freudian psychology; the progressive school of social reform; the behaviorist philosophy with its emphasis on scientific methods and measurable outcomes; as well as social action theory, a derivative of Marxist or socialist thinking.

Texts & the Context of Learning

Teaching adults to read and write or just function in society is quite different from teaching children. There are issues that adults must contend with in order to begin the process that children or younger adults may not have. Emotional factors come into play, as well as developmental or maturity issues. Other factors related to adult literacy also must be considered because they impact one's readiness for development, as well as the assessment of adult literacy performance. These factors include the demographics of the adult (age, race/ethnicity), social and economic factors, as well as income and education.

Readiness for the teaching-learning transaction is dependent upon many variables, including social and cultural cues. The teaching of literacy skills becomes a challenging undertaking and there is not a single theory or philosophy to explain exactly how this should occur with adults. One framework, the concept of andragogy, introduced in 1968 by the educator Malcolm Knowles, focuses on the adult learner and his or her context. Andragogy, meaning "the art and science of helping adults learn" (Merriam & Caffarella, 1999) makes five core assumptions about the nature of learning for adults, contrasted with the way children learn. Based on these assumptions about the context of learning for adults, Knowles made several conclusions about the design and evaluation of adult learning programs. There must be a certain "adult landscape" or climate present in the formal classroom. However, because of their particular life situations and responsibilities, quite often, when adult students are prepared to develop literacy skills in a formal setting, they can only attend classes or work on their skills for a few hours per week. This includes those who enroll in a basic education program or independent adult education program. These are often grassroots efforts and include literacy groups and for-profit schools.

Formal & Informal Setting for Learning

While the context for learning is often in a formal setting, it may also occur in an informal setting, such as a church-based or community center literacy group, often spearheaded by volunteers. The focus for these groups is often literacy development for the betterment of the individual and ultimately, the community. However, some formal postsecondary institutions have been established exclusively for the adult learner with a mission that incorporates and accommodates a broad range of educational philosophies.

What we do know in regard to formal and informal literacy development, as well as adult learning in general, is that the context in which the learning takes place influences how adults are able to learn. Certain literacy programs and practices engage adult learners more so than others; however, when the text is life itself, drawing on the experiences of the adult learners, the adult learner thrives in his or her literacy development. The process of learning by drawing on this 'text of life' or on past experiences and making connections to current and even future experiences, cannot be defined outside the scope of the literacy learner's experience. Thus, understanding the nature of one's experience becomes paramount. This emphasis on experience harkens back to educator John Dewey, who said, "All genuine education comes about through experience" (Dewey, 1938, p. 13).

Activities & Real Life Scenarios

Adult literacy learners are in need of texts and activities that use real-life scenarios. Perhaps more than any other groups of learners, adult literacy learners need to make immediate connections between what they are learning in the classroom and what they are learning or doing in their world of work and family. They seek "authenticity" in the texts, which is why choosing reading matter and topics becomes so crucial for the educator. Studies suggest that those adult literacy learners, who find themselves in classes where they are actively engaged by the texts, the discussions, and the instructor, read and write more often and with greater fluency and comfort.

This type of interaction and motivation on the part of the learner is also significantly impacted by the degree and nature of teacher-learner interaction. Studies suggest that adult literacy education is greatly impacted by the degree to which there is instructor-learner interaction (Donaldson, 1999; Matus-Grossman & Gooden, 2002). Generally, successful adult participants in any type of literacy program consider their interactions with faculty, staff, and/or administrators to be positive and an important component of their development.

Teaching "Alphabetics"

Some current literacy practices in the formal classroom include the teaching of alphabetics to adult students. The process of "alphabetics" entails the use of the alphabet to represent spoken words (Curtis, 2005) and includes phonemic awareness, as well as word analysis. Some are able to manipulate the sounds of the English language; others are able to understand that a certain string of letters represents actual words and even sounds. They are then able to blend sounds and develop a more complex awareness of the letters and sounds. Since alphabetics is assessed orally, illiterate adults are not as intimidated by the process.

Developing Fluency

For the more literate adult, fluency development is more appropriate. Fluency is simply the ability to read and write with ease and understanding. This entails greater accuracy and comfort with the language and its nuances. Fluency also entails a more sophisticated understanding of alphabetics, or the decoding processes one may utilize. Fluency is an issue for all adult literacy learners, from the beginner to those at advanced levels. Generally, it can be measured with standardized tests, but reading fluency can also be assessed orally, with the experienced educator gauging the accuracy of the reading, when or if a student pauses, and the number of words pronounced correctly. Comprehension is inferred or more accurately assessed via a written inventory.

Developing Vocabulary

The teaching of vocabulary is another component of fluency. Many adult literacy learners have a limited reading and writing vocabulary, but a much larger speaking vocabulary. This is often the case with English language learners and beginning literacy learners. Obviously, the teaching of vocabulary helps in terms of comprehending what is read or written, but it also helps in terms of understanding the language decoding process. Literacy learners must learn not only individual words, but how to decode an entire sentence as they read texts.

Further Insights

Intergenerational and family literacy, or the impact that the parents' level of literacy has on the children, is a growing field with implications for practice and research. In the 1980s, literacy research began to focus on the family when considering the context of one's learning. Already, there was an understanding of one's sociolinguistic and cultural milieu in terms of literacy acquisition skills, but researchers also began to look at the family in terms of understanding this influence on reading and children's early literacy development. Parental involvement and family literacy became an important field for understanding how individuals developed (Gadsden, 2002). Family literacy, however, focused most prominently on children's literacy issues - particularly poor and ethnic minority children - and, although linked theoretically to adult literacy, studies exploring implications for adult learning and literacy have been limited. Yet, family literacy has been linked to and impacted by adult literacy issues through various governmental policies and programs. The primary limitation in this field is that much of the research has not only focused on poor families, but on mothers and their children.

Critical pedagogy in literacy education has existed in many forms and is most significant to practice because of its emphasis on education for political empowerment. Therefore, because there is not a focus on teaching specific academic skills, this type of literacy training has often occurred in community-based, faith-based, or independent adult education organizations. Social activism, transformation, and personal empowerment are the ultimate goals. Literacy development was viewed as the means to these ends. Students learned to read and write in order to function in society and improve the lives of themselves, their families, and their communities.

In Conclusion

The U.S. Adult Education and Literacy System (AELS) - an adult education delivery system supported by federal dollars, as well as by state and local government - has witnessed considerable growth in the last decade, disputing the widely held belief that those with the most education tend to be the ones who seek out yet more. Instead, "from 1992 through 1999, 7.9 million (of the enrollees in the AELS) were the working poor, more than 3.3 million were welfare recipients, 9.3 million were unemployed, and 2.2 million were incarcerated…More than two-thirds of the 15 million enrollees during 1992-1996 had not completed twelve years of education or received a high school diploma, and more than 3.4 million were immigrants…" (Sticht, 2002, p. 1). Thus, regardless of how adult literacy is viewed in practice, and regardless of the context, studies conclusively reveal an increase in the numbers of adults who are seeking literacy skills.

Terms & Concepts

Alphabetics: Alphabetics is the process of using the written letters in an alphabet to portray important words when verbalized. It includes phonemic attentiveness and word analysis.

Andragogy: Andragogy is the art and science of helping adults learn, as opposed to the concept of pedagogy, which derives from a work with children.

Authenticity: Authenticity in literacy development refers to those literacy activities and tasks that are actually applicable in one's everyday life.

Balanced Literacy: Balanced literacy is a concept that establishes a balance between reading and writing instruction, allowing students to work at their own pace and receive the literacy instruction they need. Its premise is that all can read and all can write.

Continuous Texts: Continuous texts refer to those documents one might encounter on a daily basis, along with the prose literacy skills required to comprehend them.

Critical Pedagogy: Critical pedagogy, as opposed to noncritical pedagogy, takes into account the distinct social, historical, and cultural backgrounds and needs of individuals involved in literacy skill acquisition. According to critical theorists, noncritical programs place a primacy on skills acquisition.

Dialectical Thinking: Dialectical thinking is viewed as logical argumentation, often characterized by an ability to acknowledge the inherent contradictions and ambiguities in life.

Experiential Learning: Experiential learning is a concept that positions experience and learning in a mutual interplay. Learning does not merely derive from experience, but rather, education, experience and life become intertwined. The concept has its roots in the work of John Dewey.

Informal Learning: Informal learning is that learning which occurs from daily living experiences. It may often be unplanned or incidental, and generally occurs outside of a formal educational setting.

Literacy Acquisition: Literacy acquisition is the attainment of those basic skills needed to function in society, including reading, writing, and numeracy skills.

Noncontinuous Texts: Noncontinuous texts are documents that might require one's attention on an irregular basis.

Nonformal Learning: Nonformal learning is the learning that occurs outside of formal educational settings, such as a classroom. However, this type of learning may be the product of formal or planned activities.

Quantitative Literacy: Quantitative literacy refers to numeracy, or an understanding of the role of numbers embedded in certain printed matter.

Bibliography

Alamprese, J.A., MacArthur, C.A., Price, C., & Knight, D. (2011). Effects of a structured decoding curriculum on adult literacy learners' reading development. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4, 154-172. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59702618&site=ehost-live

Council for Adult and Experiential Learning. Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://www.cael.org/

Curtis, M. & Kruidenier, J. (2005). Teaching adults to read. Washington, DC: The National Institute For Literacy.

Degener, S. (2001). Making sense of critical pedagogy in adult literacy education. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 2. Boston: NCSALL.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York: Collier Books.

Donaldson, J. F. (1999). A model of college outcomes for adults. Adult Education Quarterly, 50, 24 - 40.

Gadsden, V. (2002). Current areas of interest in family literacy. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3. Boston: NCSALL.

Kruidenier, J. (2002). Literacy education in adult basic education. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3. Boston: NCSALL.

Matus-Grossman, L. & Gooden, S. (2002). Opening doors: students' perspectives on juggling work, family, and college. New York: Manpower Demonstration Research Corp.

Merriam, S., & Caffarella, R. (1999). Learning in adulthood. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Mezirow, J. (Ed.) (2000). Learning as transformation: critical perspectives on a theory in progress. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Miller, B., Esposito, L., & McCardle, P. (2011). A public health approach to improving the lives of adult learners: Introduction to the special issue on adult literacy interventions. Journal of Research on Educational Effectiveness, 4, 87-100. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59702620&site=ehost-live

National Assessment of Adult Literacy. Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://nces.ed.gov/naal/

National Center for the Study of Adult Literacy and Learning. Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://www.ncsall.net/index.php?id=17

Purcell-Gates, V., Degener, S., Jacobson, E. & Soler, M. (2001). Affecting change in literacy practices of adult learners. NCSALL Research Brief. Boston: NCSALL.

Sticht, T. (2002). The rise of the adult education and literacy system in the United States: 1600 - 2000. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3. Boston: NCSALL.

Straubhaar, R. (2013). North American adult literacy programs and Latin American immigrants: How critical pedagogy can help nonprofit literacy programming in the United States. Critical Studies In Education, 54, 190-202. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87666293&site=ehost-live

White, S. & Dillow, S. (2005). Key concepts and features of the 2003 national

White, S. & Dillow, S. (2005). Key concepts and features of the 2003 national assessment of adult literacy. National Center for Education Statistics. Washington, DC: US Department of Education.

Workforce Investment Act of 1998. Public Law 203.12. Retrieved June 17, 2007, from http://www.doleta.gov/usworkforce/wia/wialaw.pdf

Suggested Reading

Council for Adult and Experiential Learning. (2000). Serving adult learners in higher education: principles of effectiveness. Chicago: Council for Adult and Experiential Learning.

Freire, P. (1970). Pedagogy of the oppressed. New York: Continuum.

Gadsden, V. (2002). Resources on family literacy. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 3. Boston: NCSALL.

Gillen, J. (2006). Adult literacy as social practice: more than skills by Uta Papen. Literacy, 40 . Oxford: Blackwell Publishing.

Gillespie, M. (2001). Research in writing: implications for adult literacy education. Review of Adult Learning and Literacy, 2 . Boston: NCSALL.

Jarvis, P. (1987). Adult learning in the social context. London: Croom Helm.

Long, R. (2013). Literacy and the manufacturing sector:Why 600,000 jobs go begging. Reading Today, 30, 26-27. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87064639&site=ehost-live

National Institute for Literacy. http://www.nifl.gov

Terry, M. (2006). The importance of interpersonal relations in adult literacy programs. Educational Research Quarterly, 30 , 30-43. Education Research Quarterly. Retrieved June 17, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23343977&site=ehost-live