Affective Variable

The Affective Variable is a learning motivation aspect which is part of the affective domain. Affect refers to the emotions, attitudes, feelings and beliefs that condition behavior. In language learning, the affective variable refers to how emotions, attitudes, etc. impact learners' second language acquisition. A primary affective variable is motivation. Research has found that when students are motivated, they are more likely to be successful. Motivation has been conceptualized many ways, and several theories have been posited to explain what motivates students. Other affective factors have also been identified. There are many ways teachers can use their knowledge of the affective variable to help students in the classroom.

Keywords Affective Filter Hypothesis; Affective Variable; Attribution Theory; Autonomous Motivation; Community Language Learning; Expectations and Values-Related Theory; Extrinsic Motivation; Goal-Related Theory; Instrumental Orientations; Integrative Attitude; Intrinsic Motivation; Learning Strategies; Motivation; Second Language (L2); Self-Determination Theory

English as a Second Language > The Affective Variable

Overview

Language learning is a complex process that is influenced by multiple factors. One of the most important factors is the affective variable. Affect refers to the emotions, attitudes, feelings and beliefs that can condition behaviors (Arnold & Brown, 1999).

Affect and cognition are closely-integrated in the learning process. Some argue that affect precedes and motivates both cognition and behavior (Cuddy, Fiske & Glicke, 2007). That is, one's emotions, feelings and attitudes influence one's perceptions of an event; thereby determining what one thinks about and does before, during and after the event. Neurobiologists have shown that affect has an important impact on memory. Strong emotions can interfere with one's working memory, thereby interfering with the learning process. At the same time, affect can reshape long-term memory (Stevick, 1999).

Affect & Motivation

Due to its importance in learning, much research has been done to uncover the exact nature of affect and how it can be used to promote achievement. One of the most researched affective factors is motivation. Studies have consistently shown that motivated students are likely to be more successful in learning a second language (Masgoret & Gardner, 2003). In general, this is because students in a classroom that stimulates positive emotions are likely to enjoy the learning experience and will gain the attitude that learning in the context is desirable. Thus, they will be motivated to try hard and gain greater achievement. On the other hand, students in an environment that stimulates negative emotions will dislike the experience and gain the attitude that learning is undesirable. They will lack motivation, put little effort into their work, and have lower achievement.

But what causes motivation? Why are some students more motivated than others? Are there different types of motivation?

Integrative & Instrumental Orientations

Motivation has been conceptualized in various ways. Dörnyei (2003) provides a historical overview of motivation research in second language acquisition, and his timeline is generally followed here. He begins with the work of Lambert and Gardner (1972), who identified two types of attitudes that contribute to one's motivation to learn a second language (L2). These are integrative and instrumental:

• An integrative orientation refers to an individual's desire to associate with members of the culture who speak the target language. This theory states that learners who want to be more like the people who speak the target language are going to be more willing to adopt the behaviors and language style of the new culture. Therefore, they will quickly learn the language.

• Instrumental orientation refers to the practical reasons that an individual learns a language, such as to get a better job.

Dörnyei points out that Lambert and Gardner were working in the multicultural Canadian context composed of two distinct language communities comprised respectively of French and English speakers. In this context, they found integrativeness to be a "primary" (Dörnyei, 2003, p. 5) force for aiding or interfering with intercultural communication. However, not all L2 situations involve two communities coming into contact. In fact, many students learn a language as a foreign language in their own language environments (e.g., Chinese students learning English in China). Dörnyei highlights other researchers who suggest that the concept of integrativeness might not have to refer to an actual integration of an individual into a community, but could generally refer to an individual's developing self-concept. In this instance, the term would refer to an ideal-self with attributes of the L2 (Dörnyei & Csizer, 2002 as cited in Dörnyei, 2003).

Self-Determination & Motivation

While Lambert and Gardner worked from a social psychology perspective, subsequent advances in cognitive psychology greatly influenced motivation studies. One of the most important cognitive theories dealing with affect is Deci and Ryan's (1995) Self-determination Theory (SDT). SDT categorizes an individual's motivation according to whether and to what extent the individual freely chooses the goal to be accomplished. In this theory, there are two general types of motivation: extrinsic and intrinsic.

• Extrinsic motivation is that which is inspired by factors that exist outside of the individual such as rewards and punishments.

• Intrinsic motivation refers to an individual's internal desires and needs to do well and to accomplish one's goals.

Extrinsic and intrinsic motivation represent opposite poles along a continuum of self-determination. Several sub-types of motivation are identified along the continuum, particularly related to extrinsic motivating factors. In these subtypes, it is recognized that even if motivation is extrinsic, an individual can agree with the goal. The greater the degree of agreement and acceptance of the motivating factor, the greater self-determination the individual will feel. For instance, studying English in order to gain a promotion is considered an extrinsic motivation. If the individual is forced to apply for the promotion, he or she is not likely to perceive the move to study English as one that is freely chosen. However, if the individual believes that the promotion is going to benefit him or her and is one that is desirable, then studying English is likely to lead to a greater sense of freedom and self-determination (Noels, 2003).

Noels, Pelletier, Clément & Vallerand (2003) have been instrumental in applying SDT to L2 acquisition. In their research, they have found that when students perceive greater freedom of choice in the classroom and hold perceptions of themselves as competent, they are more likely to report more self-determined forms of motivation. Students who report higher levels of internalized motivation also report being more comfortable and persevering in their L2 learning. On the other hand, when students feel less freedom of choice and/or low levels of competence, they are less intrinsically motivated. These researchers suggest that this and similar research could mean that autonomy-supportive environments encourage intrinsic motivation and thus should result in higher levels of achievement.

However, some researchers have questioned the validity of SDT in cultural contexts where collectivism and conformity is valued over independence and individuality. In particular, some have posited that SDT may be less relevant to students from Asian cultures (Vansteenkiste, Zhou, Lens, & Soenens 2005). To test whether this is the case, a number of studies have been done on autonomous motivation, which is defined as a combination of intrinsic motivation and an internalized kind of extrinsic motivation in which the learner believes that the behavior needed to achieve a goal is personally valuable. Though more research is likely to be done on this question, in two studies investigating the relationship between autonomous motivation and Chinese students, both studies found that autonomous study motivation positively predicts adaptable learning attitudes, academic success and personal well-being. In contrast, controlled motivation, or motivation that is regulated by external factors or ones that are only partially-internalized, was associated with higher drop-out rates, maladaptive learning attitudes and ill-being. Moreover, parents who used autonomy supportive styles had children with more adaptive learning styles and higher well-being (Vansteenkiste, et al., 2005).

Goal-Related Theory

Goal-related Theory is an important cognitive theory stating that the kinds of goals that learners set for themselves impact motivation. Challenging and specific goals are more likely to lead to high levels of motivation as are goals that are set by the learners rather than by an external source. Goals affect attitudes and motivation by

• Focusing the learner's attention on activities and behavior which are goal-relevant;

• Assisting the learner in evaluating the success of effort;

• Assisting the learner in gauging the intensity of effort needed;

• Encouraging persistent effort;

• Encouraging learners to draw up short term and long-term plans in a more systematic way in order

• To achieve the goal (Macaro, 2003, p. 94).

Attribution Theory

A third cognitive theory that has been used in motivation studies is Attribution Theory. Weiner (1992) argues that the reasons to which an individual attributes past successes and failures influence one's current and future motivation. If one believes failure has been due to lack of ability, then one is less likely to pursue similar activities in the future. On the other hand, if failure is attributed to an inappropriate use of learning strategies or lack of effort, then one may be more likely to try again (Arnold & Brown, 1999; Dörnyei, 2003). Attribution Theory is related to the Expectations and Values-related Theory. This theory holds that our perceptions of our expectations for success and the value we place on the tasks we attempt to accomplish influences motivation. Within this theory, expectations for success are developed based on a learner's attributions of past successes, their feelings of self-efficacy (or sense of what they think they can realistically do) and their self-worth (Macaro, 2003).

Neurobiological Research

Two final areas of motivation studies come from neurobiological research and what Dörnyei (2003) calls the "situated conception" of motivation. Schumann (1999) describes a stimulus-appraisal-response system where an individual's brain evaluates a stimulus based on five dimensions. These evaluations then form the basis of individual motivation. The "situated conception" refers to studies that examine the impact of the classroom context on motivation. Researchers working within this paradigm examine how the course design, the teacher and the classroom group dynamics influence student motivation.

Other Affective Factors

While motivation is well-researched, it is but one of many affective factors. Other affective factors that are frequently said to influence learning are:

• Anxiety,

• Inhibitions,

• Extroverted vs. Introverted Personalities,

• Self-Esteem, and

• Learning Styles (Arnold & Brown, 1999).

In Walqui's (2000) list of contextual factors that influence achievement in the classroom, some of those related to affect include:

• The language attitudes of the learner,

• The learner's peer group,

• The school,

• The neighborhood and

• Society at large.

Examples of attitudes that might have an affective impact include whether L2 acquisition is viewed as an act that replaces a first language or as the acquisition of an additional language; whether different dialects are acceptable in the classroom and whether the language and the culture of those who share it have status in the society. Additionally, Walqui lists individual and classroom factors that include peer pressure (e.g., is it perceived to be acceptable to learn the language?), presence of role models, level of home support, diverse needs and goals, learning styles, and the nature of classroom interactions.

Each of the above factors has been discussed in the literature and is generally assumed to have an impact on language learning. However, the exact impact of any individual factor is difficult to assess. This is because it is not easy to isolate many of these factors from larger social and/or educational contexts, and from other related factors. Therefore, while from a common sense perspective, one might be able to easily articulate why someone who is anxious about his or her ability to learn a language or who has low self-esteem would find it more difficult to achieve in the classroom, the research is less definite about their actual impact. For instance, in a study of 88 first-year-university French students that attempted to determine the role of personality variables in second language acquisition (SLA) and to integrate these variables into Gardner's socioeducational model, Lalonde & Gardner (1984) found a general lack of relationship between personality variables and French achievement or language aptitude, even though the study found that some personality variables did correlate with motivation, which has been generally shown to directly affect achievement.

Interestingly, some research suggests that increased language achievement can sometimes become a negative affective factor. In a study that examined the relationship between immigrants' linguistic acculturation, socioeconomic status, perceived discrimination, social support networks, general health and psychological well-being, Jasinskaja-Lahti and Liebkind (2007) found that linguistic acculturation was directly and negatively related to psychological well-being. That is, as immigrants gained a better control of the language, they were less happy. The reasons for this are unclear. The authors suggest that as immigrants become acculturated they may lose contact with their first language primary support groups, or their language abilities allow them to better perceive discrimination against them and begin to internalize negative attitudes and stereotypes. Whatever the reason, the negative relationship between linguistic acculturation and well-being raises interesting questions about the reciprocal relationship between affect and achievement.

Applications

Increasing Motivation in the Classroom

In the classroom, teachers concerned with the affective variable want to know how to create a positive learning environment that encourages intrinsic motivation. They also want to know how to overcome the effects of negative factors that exist within and outside the classroom. Both teachers and researchers have offered guidelines for increasing motivation. Macaro (2003) cites two studies that resulted in lists of advice for teachers who want to increase motivation. The first list from a study by Dörnyei and Csizer resulted from a survey of 200 practicing teachers. They are:

• Set a personal example with your own behavior,

• Create a pleasant and relaxed atmosphere in the classroom,

• Present the tasks properly,

• Develop a good relationship with the learners,

• Increase the learner's linguistic self-confidence,

• Make the language classes interesting,

• Promote learner autonomy,

• Personalize the learning process,

• Increase the learners' goal-orientedness,

• Familiarize the learners with the target language culture (cited in Macaro, 2003, p. 113).

The second list springs from a study by Williams & Burden:

• Recognize the complexity of motivation,

• Be aware of both initiating and sustaining motivation,

• Discuss with learners why they are carrying out activities,

• Involve learners in making decisions related to learning the language,

• Involve learners in setting language-learning goals,

• Recognize people as individuals,

• Build up individual's beliefs in themselves,

• Develop internal beliefs,

• Help move towards a mastery-oriented style,

• Enhance intrinsic motivation,

• Build up a supportive learning environment,

• Give feedback that is informational (cited in Macaro, 2003, p. 113).

While these suggestions sound good in light of some of the theories of motivation that have been discussed above, Macaro (2003) expresses concern that there is nothing language specific about these procedures.

There is nothing on the issue of use of the target language or the exclusion of the L1. There is nothing on progression with respect to the difficulty of the content itself. There is very little mention of the relationship between the individual's cultural identity and the culture of the target country or countries. There is no mention of the dominance of English as an international language and the effects of this on both learners of English as an L2 and on English (L1) learners of languages other than English (p. 114).

Learning Strategies

In light of this dearth, he cautions that the answer for teachers who want to spur language learning motivation cannot only be found in generic motivations for motivating learners. He points to the teaching of learning strategies as one potentially effective way that teachers can encourage and sustain student motivation. Learning strategies are the actions that students can use to learn new information. There are multiple learning strategies. Some of these are specific to reading, listening, speaking and writing. For instance, in reading, students may learn strategies to help them discover the meaning of words in contexts such as looking for synonyms and definitions in the sentences near the unknown word. Macaro (2003) hypothesizes that research will find that when students effectively use strategies, they experience success in language learning and this success will in turn lead them to be more motivated to pursue their studies.

Although he says there are few studies to test this hypothesis, he points to Goal Theory and theories of self-determination as a basis for his ideas. He says that evidence shows that one of the reasons for students' poor attitudes toward language learning is that they find it difficult. Since Goal Theory suggests that non-challenging goals are not motivating, he states that instead of making classes easier, teachers should provide challenging goals and teach students the strategies they can use to achieve them. In terms of self-efficacy, he says that teaching students to use strategies promotes independence and learner autonomy. When students choose from a selection of strategies and evaluate them for effectiveness, they feel empowered and in control of their language learning processes, which thereby increases motivation (Macaro, 2003).

Affective Filter Hypothesis

In addition to advice to generally spur motivation, teachers also have access to a few specific language methodologies that have affect as a primary component of the method. Krashen & Terrell's (1983) Natural Approach is formulated around five hypotheses, one of which is the Affective Filter Hypothesis. This states that a learner's emotional state can act as a filter that impedes or blocks input of language acquisition. Community Language Learning is a method that aims to relieve the anxiety that students feel when they learn a new language by using counseling techniques (Kerper, 2002).

In conclusion, the affective variable encompasses a broad range of factors related to emotions, attitudes, beliefs and feelings. It is an important variable because the impact of affective factors on student achievement is believed to be substantial. Thus, teachers should give ample consideration to affect when planning their classroom activities.

Terms & Concepts

Affective Filter Hypothesis: States that emotions can act as a filter that blocks language acquisition.

Attribution Theory: States that the reasons learners attribute for their past successes and failures influences their future motivation and behavior.

Autonomous Motivation: Describes a highly internalized and intrinsic motivation.

Community Language Learning: A method of L2 teaching that uses counseling techniques to reduce learner anxiety.

Expectations and Values-Related Theory: States that the degree of success an individual expects to have and the value that he or she places on one's activities influences motivation.

Extrinsic Motivation: Refers to motivation that is inspired by factors external to the learner such as getting a reward or avoiding a punishment.

Goal-Related Theory: States that learners are more motivated when they freely choose goals that are challenging and that are close to being accomplished.

Instrumental Orientations: Refer to learner attitudes that language learning is done for practical reasons such as getting a better job.

Integrative Attitude: Refers to an individual's desire to associate with, and become more like, members of the culture who speak the target language.

Intrinsic Motivation: is motivation that is caused by a learner's internal desire to do well.

Learning Strategies: Are actions that a learner takes to improve learning. There are many learning strategies specific to many learning activities such as reading or listening.

Self-Determination Theory: States that learners are more motivated when they are able to freely choose the goals that they set out to accomplish.

Bibliography

Arnold, J., & Brown, H. D. (1999). A map of the terrain. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 1-24). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Bell, S., & McCallum, R. (2012). Do foreign language learning, cognitive, and affective variables differ as a function of exceptionality status and gender?. International Education, 42, 85-105. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85171716&site=ehost-live

Cuddy, A., Fiske, S., & Glick, P. (2007). The BIAS Map: Behaviors from intergroup affect and stereotypes. Journal of Personality, 92 , 631-648.

Deci, E. L., & Ryan, R. M. (1985). (Eds.). Intrinsic motivation and self-determination in human behavior. New York: Plenum.

Dörnyei, Z. (2003). Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning: advances in theory, research and applications. In A. Cumming (Series Ed.) & Z. Dörnyei (Vol. Ed.), Language Learning: Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning. (Vol. 53, Supplement 1). (pp. 3-32). The Best of Language Learning Series. Ann Arbor, MI: Blackwell Publishing

Gardner, R.C., & Lambert, W. (1972). Attitudes and motivation in second language learning. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Jasinskaja-Lahti, E., & Liebkind, K. (2007). A structural model of acculturation and well-being among immigrants from the former USSR in Finland. European Psychologist, 12 80-92.

Kerper, J. (2002). Second language teaching methods. Retrieved Oct. 2, 2007, from http://coe.sdsu.edu/people/jmora/ALMMethods.htm#CommLL

Kondo-Brown, K. (2013). Changes in affective profiles of postsecondary students in lower-level foreign language classes. Foreign Language Annals, 46, 122-136. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87293791&site=ehost-live

Krashen, S. D., & Terrell, T. D. (1983). The natural approach: Language acquisition in the classroom. Hayward, CA: Alemany Press.

Lalonde, R. N., & Gardner, R. C. (1984). Investigating a causal model of second language acquisition: where does personality fit? Canadian Journal of Behavioral Science, 16 , 224-237.

Lindsey, E. W., & Colwell, M. J. (2013). Pretend and physical play: Links to preschoolers' affective social competence. Merrill-Palmer Quarterly, 59, 330-360. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89699623&site=ehost-live

Macaro, E. (2003). Teaching and learning a second language: A review of recent research. New York: Continuum

Masgoret, A. M., & Gardner, R. C. (2003). Attitudes, motivation, and second language learning: A meta-analysis of studies conducted by Gardner and associates. In A. Cumming (Series Ed.) & Z. Dörnyei (Vol. Ed.), Language learning: Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning. (Vol. 53, Supplement 1). (pp. 167-210). The Best of Language Learning Series. Ann Arbor, MI: Blackwell Publishing

Noels, K. (2002). Learning Spanish as a second language: learners' orientations and perceptions of their teachers' communication style. In A. Cumming (Series Ed.) & Z. Dörnyei (Vol. Ed.), Language learning: Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning. (Vol. 53, Supplement 1). (pp. 97-136)The Best of Language Learning

Series. Ann Arbor, MI: Blackwell Publishing

Noels, K., Pelletier, L.G., Clément, R., & Vallerand, R.J. (2002). Why are you learning a second language? Motivational orientations and Self-determination Theory. In A. Cumming (Series Ed.) & Z. Dörnyei (Vol. Ed.), Language Learning: Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning. (Vol. 53, Supplement 1). (pp. 33-63). The Best of Language Learning Series. Ann Arbor, MI: Blackwell Publishing

Schumann, J. (1999). A neurobiological perspective on affect and methodology in second language learning. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 28-42). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Stevick, E. (1999). Affect in learning and memory: From alchemy to chemistry. In J. Arnold (Ed.), Affect in language learning (pp. 43-57). UK: Cambridge University Press.

Vansteenkiste, M., Zhou, M., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2005). Experiences of autonomy and control among Chinese learners: Vitalizing or immobilizing? Journal of Educational Psychology, 92 , 631-648.

Walqui, A. (2000). Contextual factors in second language acquisition. Washington, D.C.: Center for Applied Linguistics. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED444381) Retrieved October 17, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Complete Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/67/3a.pdf

Weiner, B. (1992). Human motivation: Metaphors, theories and research. Newbury Park, CA: Sage.

Suggested Reading

Arnold, J. (Ed.). (1999). Affect in language learning. UK: Cambridge University Press.

Cumming, A. (Series Ed.) & Dörnyei, Z. (Vol. Ed.), Language learning: Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning (Vol. 53, Supplement 1). The Best of Language Learning Series. Ann Arbor, MI: Blackwell Publishing.

Vansteenkiste, M., Zhou, M., Lens, W., & Soenens, B. (2005). Experiences of autonomy and control among Chinese learners: vitalizing or immobilizing? Journal of Educational Psychology, 92 , 631-648.