Assessment in Physical Education

This article provides an overview of assessment in physical education. The discussion includes information about the need for assessment, the benefits and challenges of implementing assessment into the physical education program, different types of assessment, and how to implement assessments into the physical education program. The peer and portfolio assessment processes are discussed at greater length followed by information about the importance of informing students' primary caregivers about assessment results.

Keywords Affective Domain; Assessment; Cognitive Domain; Criterion-referenced; Grades; Peer Assessment; Physical Domain; Physical Education; Portfolio Assessment; Self Assessment; Teacher-Directed Assessment

Overview

Physical education teachers continually face the challenge of assessing their students' learning. Through this assessment process teachers gain the information or evidence that they need to appropriately grade student learning in the affective, physical, and cognitive domains of physical education (Gallo, Sheehy, Patton, & Griffin, 2006). The physical domain in physical education focuses on the development of basic locomotor skills (elementary level) and sport skills and physical fitness (secondary level) (Gosset, 2007). The locomotor skills that are included in the physical domain include walking, running, hopping, horizontal and vertical jumping, sliding, skipping, galloping, leaping, punting, dribbling, kicking, striking, and throwing (Orlich, 2002). The affective domain addresses physical education students' behavior, attitudes, attributes, and dispositions during class (Gallo, 2003). The cognitive domain of physical education addresses the acquisition of knowledge related to fitness, sport, other activities and the application of that knowledge. The feedback that is provided to students and teachers about learning progress in these areas can be used by the teacher to inform instruction and promote changes in instruction to improve the effectiveness and direction of teaching (Gallo, et al., 2006). Feedback offers students the opportunity to become more aware of their own progress and engages them and motivates them to become more active learners (Gallo, et al., 2006). In an educational system that is often focused on student assessment to determine the strength or weakness of its programs, assessment provides physical education teachers an opportunity to demonstrate accountability, credibility and support for these programs (Gallo, et al., 2006).

Types of Assessment

When assessing student learning, it is important to gather multiple sources of information that directly measure or examine the target behavior, focus on quality of performance, utilize criterion-referenced rather than normative-referenced measurement, and to involve students in the development of assessments (NASPE, 1995). Physical education teachers can incorporate a variety of assessments or one assessment format into their class instruction and program. According to Melograno (1997), these assessment techniques include:

• Teacher-directed assessments, which are achievement tests, observational inventories, and written tests. Teacher-directed assessments directly measure a student's motor skill, cognitive, affective, and psychomotor ability (Melograno, 1997).

• Peer assessments, which involve students acting individually or as a group to assess their peers. Peer assessments are advantageous as they help students to develop and administer an assessment, learn concern for others, a sense of responsibility, and learn how to give constructive feedback (Melograno, 1997).

• Self assessments, which involve the students critically and validly assessing their own performance/ability based on personal goals, teacher-derived goals, and/or peer-standards (Melograno, 1997), and

• Portfolio assessment -- an ongoing feedback system that serves to document student progress and learning through a variety of work samples and examples of learning (Melograno, 1997).

Determining the Correct Assessment Method

While there are a variety of assessments to choose from, physical education teachers must determine what barriers they are faced with and what assessments would most appropriately fit with such contextual constraints and be most appropriate for their students. Teachers are faced with barriers to assessment that must be considered, including large class sizes, limited class time (length and frequency), and limited preparation time (Johnson, 2005). Physical education teachers should choose the assessment based on the following guiding questions:

• "Does the assessment assess the intended performance outcome?"

• "Is the assessment developmentally appropriate?"

• "Are the identified criteria for success?"

• "Is the assessment part of the learning task?" and

• "Is the assessment practical?" (Johnson, 2005, p. 46).

To determine whether or not the assessment measures the correct outcome, the physical education teacher must be clear on what performance outcome he/she would like to assess, what information the assessment will provide, and are there any variables in the assessment that make the results contingent upon the performance of another student (Johnson, 2005). Once these questions have been answered, the teacher will have properly determined if the assessment of choice will measure the intended performance outcome. Teachers must also critically review an assessment to determine whether or not it is developmentally appropriate for the age group/developmental level of student that the teacher will be assessing (Johnson, 2005). If a developmentally inappropriate assessment is used, the results may either be inflated or very low with scores that do not meet the standards for a successful assessment. Students should also be informed of the criteria that the teacher will use in their assessment as this provides the students with information about what they need to work toward, thus focusing their attention and motivation (Johnson, 2005).

It has been recommended that the assessment process be a part of or embedded in the learning task and instruction of the class (Johnson, 2005). When assessments are embedded into the learning process, the students become more comfortable with the assessment process as it is taking place in a natural setting, students are in a more relaxed cognitive state, the instructor is actively supervising student behavior, all students are active, and the teacher is able to take advantage of limited time (Johnson, 2005; Orlich, 2002). Teachers must determine if the assessment is practical for their class by determining if the assessment can be embedded in instructional tasks, if the information obtained from the assessment is worthy of the time spent, if the assessment can be administered in a reasonable amount of time, and if the data can be recorded and organized efficiently and effectively (Johnson, 2005). Following these guidelines can help the physical educator to make responsible and informed decisions when choosing the appropriate assessments he/she will use in the class.

Validation

Once appropriate assessments are chosen and implemented, teachers must validate the assessment by collecting data and using the assessment in the manner in which it is intended (Allen, 2002). An assessment can be validated by the teacher videotaping a particular assessment and collecting the assessment data (Allen, 2002). The physical education teacher can then send the video and collected data to a consultant who will conduct an independent assessment by watching the videotape and scoring the performances using the same rubric (Allen, 2002). Once this is completed the results of the assessments can be compared and inter-rater reliability can be calculated to determine the validity and reliability of the assessment (Allen, 2002). Once an acceptable inter-rater reliability is obtained the teacher may use the assessment without having to have a consultant score the performances as well (Allen, 2002). Physical education teachers should aggregate the data that is collected through the assessments and then use this information to inform their decisions about any changes or modifications in their instruction and/or program (Allen, 2002).

Applications

Peer Assessment

Physical education teachers are faced with the challenge of providing individual feedback to each student on their skill practices. Implementing peer assessment into the instructional and assessment process may help a teacher get some form of feedback to each student, while helping students to:

• Become more engaged in the learning process,

• Increase the social interaction and level of trust between students,

• Teach students how to give and receive constructive feedback,

• Have students become more focused on the process of performing a skill rather than the product, and

• Allow students who are quick learners to help other students in the learning process (Johnson, 2004).

Johnson recommends that when a teacher uses this type of assessment, that there is also a form of assessment that focuses on the affective behaviors involved in the peer evaluation process. This affective assessment should evaluate the students' abilities in giving and receiving feedback and criticisms as well as the tolerance students have for other students (Johnson, 2004). Peer assessments used as a lead up to formative assessment offer the students opportunities to engage in more practice time with individual feedback, prepare them mentally for the formative assessment, give test-anxious students a lower-stress environment a chance to learn and practice, provide feedback about errors prior to formative assessment, and motivate students to continue practicing and attempting to master the skill (Johnson, 2004). In a class that uses peer assessment throughout the learning process, the focus shifts from the product to mastery of the skill, lower levels of stress, and familiarity with the assessment process (Johnson, 2004).

Rubrics

Implementing the peer assessment process requires time and effort as teachers must develop a specific rubric for the peer assessment that describes what each student (assessor and performer) will be doing (written and depicted pictorially). This tool provides clear instructions and helps keep students accountable when performing the assessment while reinforcing the physical education teacher's instructions and expectations. When created and written effectively, it will assess the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains (Johnson, 2004).

Demonstration & Facilitation

The implementation of peer assessment raises the issue of ensuring that all students are honestly, correctly, and effectively assessing their peer's performance in a manner that instills trust in their peers (Johnson, 2004). It is important for the physical education teacher to explicitly demonstrate the assessment process by breaking down the skill so that students can see where and what they are being asked to observe and how to communicate with each other throughout the assessment process. Johnson (2004) recommends that once this demonstration is complete the teacher must facilitate getting this process started and then actively supervise throughout the peer assessment process. While supervising the teachers should be correcting, supporting, and reinforcing the behaviors that will help the students successfully assess their peers (Johnson, 2004). Peer assessment, while initially time consuming and challenging for students, will benefit the students and their learning of the skill and other positive social interaction behaviors.

Portfolios

The use of portfolios in physical education as a learning and assessment tool has also been recommended. A physical education teacher who is interested in incorporating portfolios into his/her class must carefully consider and be attentive to the identification and development of learning outcomes (Kirk, 1997). These learning outcomes must be related to the overall goals of the program and it is imperative that these learning outcomes are communicated with the students when initiating the portfolio process (Kirk, 1997). The learning outcomes set forth the basis of what projects, information, and other evidence that demonstrates what the student has achieved (Kirk, 1997). Physical education teachers have the opportunity to create and suggest projects for their students that allow them to be creative and demonstrate their knowledge in ways that are not directly related to physical skill (see Kirk, 1997 for examples of portfolio projects). Physical education teachers must also provide students with the evaluation criteria (e.g., a rubric with 3-6 levels) that will guide the final evaluation of the students' portfolios. Portfolios offer physical education students opportunities to have some level of autonomy in the learning process.

Benefits of Portfolios

While incorporating portfolios for the first time into the physical education classroom can be challenging and takes extra effort on the part of the teacher, there are many benefits for the student and teacher that may outweigh the challenge and extra time (Kirk, 1997). Portfolios can have a positive impact on student learning and assessment in a number of ways. The use of portfolios in physical education encourages individualized and developmentally appropriate learning as students are empowered to make their own decisions based on their personal progress throughout a specific unit or specific skill development (Kirk, 1997). This individualized learning may serve to enhance students' motivation by challenging them based on their skill levels and development. Portfolios also provide evidence of student learning and opportunity to showcase their best achievements over the assessment period (Kirk, 1997).

Another benefit of portfolios is the promotion of student responsibility and student learning as the completion of a portfolio requires students to take responsibility and ownership over the learning process. It allows them the flexibility to be creative when working on projects of their choice (Kirk, 1997). The physical education portfolio also allows for continuous feedback and assessment throughout the learning period, whereas typical 'end of the unit' assessments only provide information and feedback after the learning and practice period ends (Kirk, 1997). Conversely, the use of portfolios allows for the students to make changes in their practice time and/or the focus of their practice (Kirk, 1997). Lastly, the portfolio encourages students to self-reflect on the process of learning, personal challenges, performance, and achievement levels (Kirk, 1997). Each of these alternative methods provide individualized assessment, descriptive information, and transferable assessment to provide parents and students with more complete, objective, and personal information about their learning progress.

Further Insights

Translating Assessments for Parents/Guardians

The assessment of physical education students has been traditionally used by physical education teachers to assist in their planning and monitoring student progress. It is important to share the results of the assessments with students' parents (Cruz & Petersen, 2002). These assessment results provide parents with “information about their child's learning progress and help them to determine whether or not their child's needs are being met, as well as developing good public relations and support” for the physical education program (Cruz & Petersen, 2002, p. 21). Communicating the assessment information to parents helps them to make the connection between physical activity and physical education class (Cruz & Petersen, 2002). Traditional communication with parents about student progress has been through letter grading, pass/fail, or a minimally descriptive word scale (outstanding, satisfactory, etc.).

Cruz and Petersen (2002) suggest four disadvantages of using these traditional grading systems:

• Traditional grading systems are not transferable between teachers, schools, or classes,

• Traditional grading systems may foster an environment where there is competition for grades,

• Traditional grading systems are not always connected to learning outcomes, and

• Traditional grading systems are not descriptive and do not indicate what a student can and cannot do.

If teachers are limited to using a traditional method of grading there are grading techniques that can be implemented to provide more information to students and parents. Physical education teachers have the opportunity to use alternative methods of reporting assessment including rubrics, checklists, and descriptive assessment reports (Cruz & Petersen, 2002). Cruz and Petersen (2002) suggest that physical education teachers may assign specific phrases that describe how well skill is developing and in what manner the skill is being acquired (i.e., with or without assistance from peers and teachers). Physical education teachers may also work within a traditional grading system by assigning multiple grades to each student for the affective domain, cognitive domain, and physical fitness (Cruz & Petersen, 2002). Parents may also be provided with an additional checklist or assessment form that supplies more descriptive information about the students' performance. Physical education teachers may also grade students based on the national or state standards for physical education (Cruz & Petersen, 2002).

Alternative Use of Assessment

Assessment is primarily used to gather information about the learning progress of students. However, assessments may also be used to gather alternative information from students. Creative techniques (e.g., artwork, photography) to assess student perceptions, attitudes, and activity preferences may help physical education teachers in the planning and programming of children's physical activity programs (Sharpe, Greaney, Royce, & Fields, 2004). For example, assessing students' artwork can allow physical education teachers an opportunity to learn how the students conceptualize physical activity and what activities male and female students might prefer (Sharpe et al., 2004). When planning physical education, teachers should incorporate activities that are appealing to both genders and should encourage all students to participate in all activities equally (Sharpe et al., 2004).

Conducting assessment in physical education is an important component of the educational process as this practice provides the students and their caregiver(s) information about their learning progress in physical education. The assessment process increases the credibility of physical education programs by connecting performance results to the health-related fitness and activity behaviors of the students. Assessments can be creative and engaging or formal and teacher-directed. Regardless of assessment type, these assessments must measure the appropriate skills and provide valid information about student learning progress.

Terms & Concepts

Affective Domain: This area of physical education focuses on the students' behavior, attitudes, attributes, and dispositions during class (Gallo, 2003).

Assessment: Tools that assist teachers in measuring the progress of students and consequently assist teachers in the grading process.

Cognitive Domain: Area of physical education that addresses the acquisition of knowledge related to fitness, sport, other activities and the application of that knowledge.

Grades: evidence of student progress/mastery of learning objectives within the cognitive, affective, and psychomotor domains.

Peer Assessment: Assessments that involve students acting individually or as a group to assess each other (Melograno, 1997).

Physical Domain: Area of physical education that focuses on the development of basic locomotor skills (elementary level) and sport skills and physical fitness (secondary level) (Gosset, 2007).

Portfolio Assessment: Assessment that involves an ongoing feedback system that serves to document student progress and learning through a variety of work samples and examples of learning (Melograno, 1997).

Self Assessment: Assessment that involves the students' critically and validly assessing their own performances/abilities based on personal goals, teacher-derived goals, and/or peer-standards (Melograno, 1997).

Teacher-Directed Assessment: Assessments that include achievement tests, observational inventories, and written tests, which directly measure a student's motor skill, cognitive, affective, and psychomotor ability, and knowledge and application of information (Melograno, 1997).

Bibliography

Allen, R. (2002). Using assessment data to monitor physical education programs. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 73 , 25-30.

Avery, M. (2012). Web-based assessment of physical education standards. JOPERD: The Journal of Physical Education, Recreation & Dance, 83, 27-34. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=75221371&site=ehost-live

Cruz, L.M. & Petersen, S.C. (2002). Reporting assessment results to parents. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 73 , 19-24.

Gallo, A.M. (2003). Assessing the affective domain. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 74 , 44-48.

Gallo, A.M., Sheehy, D., Patton, K., & Griffin, L. (2006). Assessment benefits and barriers: What are you committed to? Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 77 , 46-50.

Gosset, (2007). Skill assessment in elementary physical education: An appropriate progression. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 78 , 14-15.

Johnson, L.V. (2005). Choosing appropriate assessments. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 68 , 29-33.

Johnson, R. (2004). Peer assessments in physical education. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 75, 33-40.

Kirk, M.F. (1997). Using portfolios to enhance student learning and assessment. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 76 , 46-47, 56.

López-Pastor, V., Kirk, D., Lorente-Catalán, E., MacPhail, A., & Macdonald, D. (2013). Alternative assessment in physical education: A review of international literature. Sport, Education & Society, 18, 57-76. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=84221156&site=ehost-live

National Association for Sport and Physical Education. (1995). Moving into the future- National standards for physical education: A guide to content and assessment. St. Louis: Mosby.

Ní Chróinín, D., & Cosgrave, C. (2013). Implementing formative assessment in primary physical education: Teacher perspectives and experiences. Physical Education & Sport Pedagogy, 18, 219-233. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87052757&site=ehost-live

Orlich, T. W. (2002). Assessing fundamental motor skills in the elementary school setting: Issues and solutions. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 73 , 26-28, 34.

Sharpe, P.A., Greaney, M.L., Royce, S.W., & Fields, R.M. (2004). Children's drawings of physical activity: Implications for needs assessment and programming. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 75 , 27- 32.

Suggested Reading

Gallahue, D.L. & Donnelly, F.C. (2003). Developmental physical education for all children.

Gallahue, D.L. & Donnelly, F.C. (2003). Developmental physical education for all children. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Hopple, C.J. (2005). Elementary physical education and teaching assessment: A practical guide. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Lambert, L.T. (1999). Standards-based assessment of student learning: A comprehensive approach. Reston, VA: Author.

Lund, J.L. (2000). Creating rubrics for physical education. Reston, VA: National Association for Sport and Physical Education.

Lund, J.L. & Kirk, M. F. (2002). Performance-based assessment for middle-school and high school physcial education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Melograno, V.J. (1994). Portfolio assessment: Documenting authentic student learning. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 65 , 50-61. Ryan, S., Marzilli, S., & Martindale, T. (2001, October). Using digital cameras to assess motor learning. Journal of Physical Education, Recreation, and Dance, 72 , 13-18.

Schiemer, S. (2000). Assessment strategies for elementary physical education. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Essay by Shelby L. Hinkle Smith, Ph.D.

Dr. Shelby L. Hinkle Smith holds a doctorate in exercise science from the University of Northern Colorado, specializing in the area of social psychology of sport and exercise. She currently teaches as Adjunct Faculty at Clinton Community College in Plattsburgh, New York in the Department of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation. Hinkle Smith also serves as the Field house Manager at The Sports & Fitness Edge in Williston, Vermont where she is responsible for sport programming and overseeing the children's after school, summer, and vacation camp programs. Dr. Hinkle Smith's research and areas of interest focus on cognitive dissonance and hazing in sport as well as character and moral development and education through sport and physical education programs. Additionally, she is a certified high school field hockey official and a United States Field Hockey Futures Program Coach.