Assistive Technology in Education

Abstract

This article discusses the various types of assistive technology (AT) in use in public special education in the United States. Assistive technology refers to devices that assist students with physical or intellectual disabilities in adapting to a standard classroom environment. These devices include alternate keyboards, Braille displays, voice recognition software, reading comprehension programs, and speech synthesizers. These devices, and newer ones including devices that incorporate robotics, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence, are advances—encouraged financially and legislatively by states and the federal government—to harness the power of technology to enrich the lives of those with disabilities. By using assistive technology, students who would previously have been unable to go to school, or to do so with great difficulty, have been able to learn along with the rest of their peers. The removal of these barriers to learning is considered one of the most rewarding uses of technology. The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 contains the rules and regulations that schools are required to follow when dealing with special education students requiring assistive technology. By law, all students with special needs, whether they use assistive technology or not, are required to be given a free appropriate public education (FAPE) from kindergarten through grade twelve.

Overview

Assistive technology refers to devices that assist students with physical or intellectual disabilities in adapting to a standard classroom environment. These devices include alternate keyboards, Braille displays, voice recognition software, reading comprehension programs and speech synthesizers. These devices, and newer ones including devices that incorporate robotics, 3D printing, and artificial intelligence, are advances—encouraged financially and legislatively by states and the federal government—to harness the power of technology to enrich the lives of those with disabilities. By using assistive technology, students who would previously have been unable to go to school, or to do so with great difficulty, have been able to learn along with the rest of their peers.

The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act. As the congressional authors of the reauthorized Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1994 noted, assistive technology in its broadest sense is about the empowerment of all people with a disability—young and old—through the use of technology:

SSubstantial progress has been made in the development of assistive technology devices, including adaptations to existing devices that facilitate activities of daily living that significantly benefit individuals with disabilities of all ages. These devices, including adaptations, increase involvement in, and reduce expenditures associated with, programs and activities that facilitate communication, ensure independent functioning, enable early childhood development, support educational achievement, provide and enhance employment options, and enable full participation in community living for individuals with disabilities. Access to such devices can also reduce expenditures associated with early childhood intervention, education, residential living, independent living, recreation opportunities, and other aspects of daily living.

The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act goes on to define an assistive technology device as "any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities."

Types of Assistive Technologies. According to Blackhurst & Edyburn, assistive technology for students with disabilities can be subdivided into the seven general problem areas they address:

• Existence problems are associated with the functions needed to sustain life, such as eating, grooming, dressing, elimination, and hygiene. Solutions may include adapted utensils, dressing aids, adapted toilet seats, toilet training, and occupational therapy services.
• Communication problems are associated with the functions needed to receive, internalize, and express information, such as oral and written expression, visual and auditory reception, and social interaction. Solutions may include hearing amplifiers, captioned video, speech aids, sign language training, magnifiers, picture boards, writing and drawing aids, pointers, alternative input and output devices for computers, augmentative communication services, social skills training, and speech/language pathology services.
• Body support, protection, and positioning problems are associated with the functions needed to stabilize, support, or protect a portion of the body, such as standing, sitting, alignment, stabilizing, and preventing injury from falls. Solutions may include prone standers, furniture adaptation, support harnesses, stabilizers, slings, headgear, and physical therapy services.
• Travel and mobility problems are associated with the functions needed to move horizontally or vertically, such as crawling, walking, using stairs, lateral and vertical transfers, and navigating in the environment. Solutions may include wheelchairs, scooters, hoists, cycles, ambulators, walkers, crutches, canes, and orientation and mobility services.
• Environmental interaction problems are associated with the functions needed to perform activities across environments, such as operating equipment and accessing facilities. Solutions may include the use of switches to control equipment, remote control devices, adapted ramps, automatic door openers, modified furniture, driving aids, and rehabilitation engineering services.
• Education and transition problems are associated with the functions needed to participate in learning activities and to prepare for new school settings or post-school settings, such as assessment, learning, access to the general education curriculum, creative and performing arts, using instructional materials, and preparing for new environments. Solutions may include adapted instructional materials, educational software, computer adaptations, community-based instruction, creative arts therapy, assistive technology, and other related services.
• Sports, fitness, and recreation problems are associated with the functions needed to participate in individual or group sports, play, hobby and craft activities such as individual and group play, leisure activities, sports, exercise, games, and hobbies. Solutions may include modified rules and equipment, Special Olympics, adapted aquatics, switch-activated cameras, Braille playing cards, and adapted physical education services.

History. The US government has been a supporter of assistive technology measures since the nineteenth century. In 1879, the US Congress gave $10,000 to the American Printing House for the Blind to produce Braille materials. Later, in 1958, they funded efforts to close-caption films for the deaf. In the 1960s, as the field of special education coalesced, the federal government again entered the picture by funding two Special Education Materials Centers to help discover the best ways to distribute assistive technology materials to special education teachers. According to data provided by the National Assistive Technology Technical Assistance Partnership, “The Assistive Technology Act of 1998, as amended (P.L. 108-364), provides funding to support grants to states throughout the U.S. and its territories for assistive technology programs. The mission of the state AT programs is to get technology into the hands of those who need it so they can be more independent and improve functional capabilities to reach educational, life, and employment goals.”

Barriers to Implementation. Still, despite this progress, many researchers maintain that there are significant barriers to be overcome before assistive technology can deliver benefits for all students who need it. Alper and Raharinirina list four major impediments to AT access:

• Despite the existing educational technology, accessible technology is unavailable to many students with disabilities and their families. For example, Norman observed that not all groups have equal access, primarily due to limited financial resources.
• The high costs of equipment and lack of funding to access devices or services, as well as the lack of information regarding AT for families of individuals with disabilities, are often primary barriers.
• Professionals' lack of knowledge about technology can be a major obstacle. For example, few training programs for special education teachers include courses or class sessions on AT applications and issues, and
• Lack of ongoing support can constitute a main problem. Fifth, eligibility issues are often important obstacles, and have led to the underutilization of AT by individuals with disabilities.

Unfortunately, even when assistive technology has been adopted, it has often been abandoned later for a variety of reasons:

• Lack of consideration of the individual with a disability and/or family's needs;
• Assistive technology selected for the person by family members or therapist;
• Complicated design factors of the device regarding setup, programming, and portability;
• Insufficient funding for the device;
• Unreliable technology;
• Lack of technical support; and
• Equipment drawing negative attention to an individual.

These sad realities make research showing the value of assistive technology for students with a disability even more poignant. For example, one study of secondary school students showed that "four assistive software tools (speech synthesis, spellchecker, homophone tool, and dictionary)" yielded "a significant assistive value … across several domains of literacy" (Lange, McPhillips, Mulhern & Wylie, 2006).

As more of these students are being educated in mainstream classrooms, where they are expected to perform grade-level work but do not always receive specialized support, teachers are searching for ways to educate students with disabilities more effectively. Yet too many teachers are unaware of the potential of assistive technologies to empower students struggling to work independently at their grade level.

General education teachers have exhibited a moderate awareness and low level of working knowledge regarding assistive technologies in the classroom. However, these teachers, who are increasingly expected to develop capacities to use such technologies to connect individual learners to the curriculum, also express a high degree of interest in and openness to assistive technology, suggesting the need for more assistive technology classes for teachers as part of the curriculum on instructional technology. Atanga et al. similarly found interest in but a lack of college-level AT training among K-12 teachers of students with learning disabilities. They tended to feel ill-prepared for real-world AT use, leading the researchers to emphasize the importance of preservice training as well as further workplace development opportunities and district-level supports.

According to Bouck, Flanagan, Miller, and Bassette, the potential category of assistive technologies has grown to include a wide range of commercially available products, many of which are transportable, easy to use, low-cost, and socially acceptable, such as smartphones, laptop computers, and tablets. The stigmatization of those who require assistive technology can be greatly reduced by providing access to devices that are readily available, broadly advertised to the general public, and desired by one’s peers.

Applications

Assistive Technology Services. Assistive technology services are the means by which assistive technology gets into the hands of students and others who make use of it. According to the 2004 amendments to the Assistive Technology Act of 1998, assistive technology services include:

• "The evaluation of the assistive technology needs of an individual with a disability;"
• "purchasing, leasing, or otherwise providing for the acquisition of assistive technology devices by individuals with disabilities";
• "selecting, designing, fitting, customizing, adapting, applying, maintaining, repairing, replacing, or donating assistive technology devices";
• "coordination and use of necessary therapies, interventions, or services with assistive technology devices";
• "training or technical assistance for an individual with a disability or, where appropriate, the family members, guardians, advocates, or authorized representatives of such an individual";
• "training or technical assistance for professionals (including individuals providing education and rehabilitation services and entities that manufacture or sell assistive technology devices), employers, providers of employment and training services, or other individuals who provide services to, employ, or are otherwise substantially involved in the major life functions of individuals with disabilities"; and
• "expanding the availability of access to technology, including electronic and information technology, to individuals with disabilities."

This process is crucial in matching students' needs with the assistive technology that best fits their educational objectives and developmental abilities. Parents, school administrators, and teachers must work together to ensure that students are being properly evaluated through assistive technology services, set up with assistive technology as needed, and then tracked through an Individualized Education Program (IEP) that can adjust to their evolving educational needs and progress.

The Assistive Technology Act of 2004. The federal government has taken a proactive role in requiring the use of assistive technology in US public school classrooms. The Assistive Technology Act of 2004 contains the rules and regulations that schools are required to follow when dealing with students requiring assistive technology. The Act itself begins by outlining state and federal government involvement in assistive technology from the 1980s to the present. It then attempts to build on past success by creating a grant program to equip states with the financial resources they need to help citizens—those with disabilities and their caregivers—with a wide range of assistive technology support, including the use of assistive technology in the K-12 public school classroom. As the authors of the act noted,

Despite the success of the Federal-State partnership in providing access to assistive technology devices and assistive technology services, there is a continued need to provide information about the availability of assistive technology, advances in improving accessibility and functionality of assistive technology, and appropriate methods to secure and utilize assistive technology in order to maximize the independence and participation of individuals with disabilities in society.

More directly relevant to students with disabilities are special education laws that come alongside the Assistive Technology Act of 2004. Public Law 94-142, The Education for All Handicapped Children Act of 1975 transformed into the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA). IDEA guarantees the right of all children with disabilities to a free and appropriate public education (FAPE) in the "least restrictive environment." In 2021, Senator Robert Casey of Pennsylvania introduced the 21st Century Assistive Technology Act, which modified the 2004 Act. Passed by Congress, this Act increased funding for assistive technology and made administrative changes in the grant process.

Individualized Family Service Plans & Individualized Education Programs. The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA) is one of the most granular special education laws on the books. It focuses on the means by which the individual student's needs are identified before they are addressed using means such as assistive technology. The identification of needs comes through a federal mandate the legislators call an Individual Education Plan (IEP). The IEP is developed by a team of professionals, parents, and sometimes the student. The IEP team reports on the student's strengths and weaknesses and defines short- and long-term goals with specific objectives for the student to reach. As part of such planning processes, all parties involved are required to consider the technologies that may be helpful in meeting the objectives of the IEP:

As part of the IEP planning process, IDEA mandates that the assistive technology needs of all students be considered. Although assistive technologies are frequently thought to be relevant primarily to those with physical disabilities, sensory or health impairments, and communication disorders, it should be noted that this provision applies equally to students with learning disabilities, who may require the use of a device, such as a spelling checker, to assist them with written communication.

The New Jersey Department of Education has created model IEP forms "to assist [New Jersey public school] districts in ensuring that all required components of the IEP are included." Granting some state-to-state variation, these forms are a useful guide for thinking through the IEP process. The US Department of Education has also published its own model IEP forms, as required by IDEA.

Viewpoints

Court Cases Regarding Assistive Education. As with most state and federal education legislation, schools often interpret various guidelines and mandates in one way, while parents interpret them in another. Such has been the case with state and federal legislation regarding assistive technology. A sampling of the case law bears this out:

East Penn School Dist. v. Scott B. (1999). While Scott was required to master a word prediction program and a laptop computer to improve his written language skills, the court ruled that those needs were not adequately addressed by the assistive technology component of the district's IEP for the student.

Coale v. State Dept. of Education of Delaware (2001). The court ruled that the Department of Education was not negligent because it didn't use a written IEP to describe specifically how assistive technology would help the student reach his educational goals. Discussing such goals in IEP team meetings was deemed sufficient.

Kevin T. v. Elmhurst (Ill.) Community School Dist. No. 205 (2002). Kevin T., a student in the district, was doing poorly in school, and the recommendation in his IEP meetings was assistive technology (particularly vocabulary-building software) to help him better process auditory information. This assistive technology was not provided by the school, and a court ruled that the school district violated the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997. The school was also ordered to compensate for Kevin's educational setbacks by providing education and services for him until he reached the age of twenty-one.

Eric H. v. Methacton (Pa.) School District (2003). Eric H., a student with leukemia, used a school district tutor at home because he would risk infection by attending school. His parents asked for VTC equipment so their son could be a virtual member of the class. However, he was quite disruptive, and the court ruled that the tutor met the school district's requirements under state and federal law.

Fitzgerald v. Camdenton R-III School District (2006). A public school student was determined by the district to need special education services. The parents refused consent, withdrew the student from the school, and began homeschooling while providing private special education services. The school district sued to compel the parents to accept special education services from the school district. The Eighth Circuit Court of Appeals ruled in favor of the parents.

Hynes v. Naperville (Ill.) School District (2007). A federal court ruled that the school district must continue to provide the services of an assisted technology device called Tango to a child with autism, even though the district and the parents disagreed over the summer education program the child should attend. (The school preferred a less expensive program, though the child's parents believed it was less effective.) The court declared that linking the use of a device such as Tango to attending a less expensive summer program amounted to a form of blackmail.

Luna Perez v. Sturgis Public Schools (2023). In 2023, the U.S. Supreme Court ruled in favor of a twenty-seven-year-old hearing-impaired man from Michigan who sought compensation from his former school district for not providing access to assistive technology such as an interpreter who could teach American Sign Language.

The Special Education Law Blog, written by a Chicago attorney with a child with disabilities, is a good resource for legal information on assistive technology in schools. Additional information on special education law, with an emphasis on parents' rights, is found at Wrightslaw. A valuable resource for training and resources in implementing assistive technology is Closing the Gap, which can be found online.

Terms & Concepts

Alternate Keyboards: Computer keyboards designed to mitigate or eliminate repetitive stress injury by improving the user's posture when typing. Examples include split or tented keyboards.

Assistive Technology: "Any item, piece of equipment, or product system, whether acquired commercially off the shelf, modified, or customized, that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities," per the Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1994.

Assistive Technology Act of 2004: The prevailing federal law regarding the delivery and use of assistive technology services for K-12 public school students in the United States.

Assistive Technology Services: An umbrella term used to refer to the processes by which assistive technology products are discussed, purchased, maintained, and monitored.

Braille Displays: A device made up of a row of special 'soft' cells that 'display' on-screen information in a tactile manner.

Free Appropriate Public Education (FAPE): A term used by federal authorities to express the mandate that public schools provide a no-cost public education to school-age students in the district and adjust instruction as necessary to accommodate the reasonable requests of students with disabilities.

Individualized Education Program (IEP): A plan, typically written, that outlines educational goals and objectives for students with learning challenges.

Reading Comprehension Programs: Computer software designed to help students improve reading comprehension through interactive activities.

Speech Synthesizers: Software that 'reads' aloud the text appearing on a computer screen.

Voice Recognition Software: Computer software that converts spoken language into words on a computer display.

Bibliography

Alnahdi, G. (2014). Assistive technology in special education and the universal design for learning. Turkish Online Journal of Educational Technology, 13, 18–23. Retrieved October 31, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Alper, S. & Raharinirina, S. (2006). Assistive technology for individuals with disabilities: A review and synthesis of the literature. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21, 47–64. Retrieved August 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Assistive Technology Act of 2004. Public Law 108-364. Accessed August 3, 2007, from the Government Printing Office http://frwebgate.access.gpo.gov/cgibin/getdoc.cgi?dbname=108‗cong‗public‗laws&docid=f:publ364.108

Atanga, C., Jones, B. A., Krueger, L. E., & Lu, S. (2019, July 31). Teachers of students with learning disabilities: Assistive technology knowledge, perceptions, interests, and barriers. Journal of Special Education Technology. https://doi.org/10.1177/0162643419864858 ‌

Blackhurst, A. E., & Edyburn, D. L. (2000). A brief history of special education technology. Special Education Technology Practice, 2, 21–36. Retrieved August 2, 2007, from Knowledge by Design http://www.setp.net/pdf/SEThistory.pdf.

Bouck, E. C. (2016). A national snapshot of assistive technology for students with disabilities. Journal of Special Education Technology, 31(1), 4–13. Retrieved December 7, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Source.

Bouck, E. C., Flanagan, S., Miller, B., & Bassette, L. (2012). Rethinking everyday technology as assistive technology to meet students' IEP goals. Journal of Special Education Technology, 27, 47–57. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Jones, V. L., & Hinesmon-Matthews, L. J. (2014). Effective assistive technology consideration and implications for diverse students. computers in the schools, 31, 220–232. Retrieved October 31, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Jost, M. B., & Mosley, B. F. (2011). Where IT's AT? Teachers, assistive technology, and instructional technology. Journal of Technology Integration in the Classroom, 3, 5–16. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Johnson, S. F. (n.d.). Assistive technology. Retrieved August 3, 2007, from the Education Law Resource Center http://www.edlawrc.com/assistive‗technology.htm

Lange, A., McPhillips, M., Mulhern, G., & Wylie, J. (2006). Assistive software tools for secondary-level students with literacy difficulties. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21 , 13–22. Retrieved August 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Murray, S. (n.d.). S.2401 - 117th Congress (2021-2022): 21st Century Assistive Technology ActCongress.gov. Retrieved May 28, 2023, from https://www.congress.gov/bill/117th-congress/senate-bill/2401

Spangler, T. (2023, Mar. 21). US Supreme Court rules for deaf Michigan man in case against school. Detroit Free Press. Retrieved May 28, 2023, from https://www.freep.com/story/news/local/michigan/2023/03/21/us-supreme-court-deaf-michigan-miguel-luna-perez-sturgis-schools/70033127007

State Assistive Technology Programs. (2011). Exceptional Parent, 41, 46–48. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1994. Public Laws 100-407 and 103-218. Retrieved August 5, 2007, from National Assistive Technology Technical Assistance Partnership http://www.resna.org/taproject/library/laws/techact94.htm

U.S. Department of Education. Individuals with Disabilities Education Act. sites.ed.gov/idea/

Suggested Reading

Bauer, S., Elsaesser, L. J., Scherer, M., Sax, C., & Arthanat, S. (2014). Promoting a standard for assistive technology service delivery. Technology and Disability, 26, 39–48.

Behrmann, M. & Schaff, J. (2001). Assisting educators with assistive technology: Enabling children to achieve independence in living and learning. Children and Families 42 , 24–28.

Blackhurst, A. E. (2006). Assistive technology legal mandates. Retrieved August 4, 2007, from the National Assistive Technology Research Institute http://natri.uky.edu/resources/fundamentals/laws.html

Bishop, J. (2003). The Internet for educating individuals with social impairments. Journal of Computer Assisted Learning, 19, 546–556. Retrieved September 18, 2007, from http://www.jonathanbishop.com/Web/Projects/Publications/Display.asp?MID=2&NID=62&Item=9

Bouck, E. C. (2017). Assistive technology. Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications.

Cain, S. (2001). Accessing technology: Using technology to support the learning and employment opportunities for visually impaired users. London: Royal National Institute for the Blind.

Cook, A.M. & Hussey, S. (2001). Assistive technologies: Principles and practice. 2nd ed. Atlanta, GA: Elsevier/Mosby.

Green, Joan L. (2014). Assistive technology in special education: Resources for education, intervention, and rehabilitation. Waco, TX: Prufrock Press.

Hasselbring, T., & Bausch, M. (2005). Assistive technologies for reading. Educational Leadership, 63 , 72–75. Retrieved August 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Jeffs, T., Behrmann, M., & Bannan-Ritland, B. (2006). Assistive technology and literacy learning: Reflections of parents and children. Journal of Special Education Technology, 21 , 37–44. Retrieved August 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Johnson, L., Beard, L. & Carpenter, L. B. (2006). Assistive technology: Access for all students. New York: Prentice-Hall.

Jones, V. L., & Hinesmon-Matthews, L. J. (2014). Effective assistive technology consideration and implications for diverse students. Computers in the Schools, 31(3), 220–232.

Zirkel, P. A. (2013). The legal meaning of specific learning disability for IDEA eligibility: The latest case law. Communique (0164775X), 41, 10–14. Retrieved December 27, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.