Athletics and Academics

This article provides an overview of the relationship between student athlete participation in school sport and academic achievement. The problems associated with sport that have been identified as having a detrimental effect on academics are discussed along with the social and psychological opportunities that sport participation provides. The findings from empirical research in the area of sport participation and academic achievement are provided, followed by a brief discussion of the weaknesses and challenges of this area of research. Sport-related social networking, school identification and commitment, relationships with significant adults, and developmental benefits are discussed in relation to how they positively impact academic outcomes. Five theoretical models are reviewed that may be used as theoretical perspectives to guide research in this area and to inform the practitioner when applying research findings to policy development.

Keywords Academic Achievement; Academic Standards; Adolescent Development; Athletics; Developmental Model; Educational Policy; Extracurricular School Activities; High School; Identification/Commitment Model; School Sports; Social Inequity Gap Reduction Model; Threshold Model; Zero-sum Model

Overview

Debate surrounding the coexistence of athletics and academics in the public schools has centered on the impact of athletic participation and students' academic performance and achievement. While there are a variety of extracurricular school activities sponsored by public schools (e.g., drama club, science club, intramural sports), the number of students that participate in athletics makes it a special case. In 2002, 43 percent of high school seniors were participating in school sports and during the 2005-2006 academic year over 7 million American high school students were involved in these athletic opportunities (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005; NFHS, 2006). These high rates of participation are coupled with growing concern about problems that have begun to fester in school sport that either directly or indirectly impact the level of academic achievement of the student athletes.

Issues with School Sports

Financial Commitment

One issue related to school sports that have raised concern with parents, administrators, teachers, and other school stakeholders includes the financial commitment that is made by schools when sponsoring athletic programs that are, in general, increasing in size (Goldman, 1991). The cost of sponsoring a comprehensive athletic program is extensive and requires funding from district monies received from taxpayer dollars and may compromise the amount of money that is allotted to maintaining and enhancing the academic program. There is also a large concern about the loss of instructional time for athletes as many sport teams receive early releases from the school day to travel to away games (Goldman, 1991). This travel may be more extensive when travel includes interstate competition (Goldman, 1991), which has become more prolific as athletic programs interested in attaining and maintaining national rankings (e.g., football, basketball) travel to other states to play other highly competitive teams.

Commercialization, Promotion & Corporate Sponsorship

Another concern is the commercialization, promotion, and corporate sponsorship of school sports (Goldman, 1991). Sport in the United States has become highly commercialized and this commercialization is not limited to professional sport. High school athletic administrators and coaches have begun to commercialize high school sport. For example, some athletic programs sell television and radio rights to game broadcasts. This commercialization sends the message to students that athletics are highly valued and important to the school, but may devalue academics. The growing trend of unsportsmanlike conduct by players, coaches and fans has also raised concern about the role of athletics in schools (Goldman, 1991). The growing number of incidents on the playing field has been accompanied by the unsportsmanlike conduct that has found its way to the stands as parents, community members and student fans often display a lack of respect for the coaches, players, and officials on the field.

Student Recruitment by Private Schools

Another point of concern in school sport is the growing number of incidents of the recruitment of high school athletes from one high school to another (Goldman, 1991). Private schools can recruit public school students to participate on their sports teams and provide scholarships to students if the student does not have the means to pay the cost of tuition, but recruitment is also found in the public school system as student athletes may be recruited by coaches from other high schools to play for their teams. This type of recruitment is typically barred or restricted by state athletic associations yet it does continue as coaches seek out the best players from “across town” to play for them, which places the focus on athletics and not academics. There is also concern about the appropriateness and effectiveness of the 'no pass-no play' policies for athletes (Goldman, 1991). The policy is well intentioned, as the message sent to the students is "if you do not pass your classes you are not allowed the privilege of playing your sport," yet if coaches and administrators do not enforce this policy or make frequent exceptions (e.g., the student is failing English, but grades are not posted until Monday so he/she is allowed to play Friday night) the policy becomes negligible.

Advantages of School Sports Participation for Adolescents

It is important to also point out the social and psychological opportunities that participation in sport provides to adolescents as they develop and which may contribute directly or indirectly to the students' investment or commitment to their academic achievement.

Improving Social Skills & Creating a Social Network

Student athletes have unique opportunities to develop their social skills and their social identities. Athletics provide adolescents with a social network and support system that is attached to their school (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005). Students also have the opportunity to have general interaction with adults and develop positive relationships outside of their immediate families that may provide mentorship and help to develop mutual trust and commitment in relationships (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005). Athletic participation helps students to learn to have an internal locus of control and develop their global self-esteem (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005) while providing a setting that is challenging to students outside of the academic arena (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005). For some struggling students, their participation in extracurricular school activities is their only opportunity to achieve a level of success that is connected to the school context (Feldman & Matjasko, 2005). These opportunities that athletic participation provides help students develop a connectedness to the school, develop quality relationships with adults, and enhance social skills, each of which can contribute to students' academic success.

Improved Academic Achievement

The debate about athletics and their influence in academics / academic achievement has undergone empirical research and been the subject of scholarly discourse. Research findings have lent support for the positive relationship between sport participation and academic achievement. More specifically, research findings have suggested that participation in athletics is related to the following positive academic-related outcomes (Eccles, Barber, Stone, & Hunt, 2003; Marsh & Kleitman, 2005; Miller, Melnick, Barnes, Farrell, & Sabo, 2005):

• Higher grade point averages

• Fewer disciplinary referrals

• Lower absentee rates

• Decrease in dropout rates

• Stronger commitment to the school

• Like school better

• Being in the academic tract in coursework

• Taking more demanding coursework

• More likely to attend college and graduate

• Higher aspirations for attending college

• Applied to more universities and colleges

• Had better occupational status 15-years after high school

Each of these research findings links athletic participation with increased or improved academic performance and achievement for student athletes; however there are weaknesses in this area of research that must be acknowledged when considering the findings and the implications.

Weaknesses or Considerations

These weaknesses or considerations include:

• Student athletes are disproportionately of a higher socioeconomic status. Socioeconomic status is linked with academic achievement; therefore research conducted with student athletes needs to take into consideration the demographics of the participants when conducting statistical analyses and practitioners must use caution when generalizing research findings to the general student athlete population and policy development (Miller, et al., 2005).

• Students with better grades are more apt to volunteer their involvement in high school sports, and it is likely that delinquent students will self-select themselves out of sport participation (Miller, et al., 2005). This will also impact research results and must be considered when analyzing and applying the research findings.

• Mixed results have been found from empirical research as several variables may mediate the relationship between athletic involvement and academic success and need to be further examined (Miller, et. al., 2005). For example, research that was conducted that examined the student athletes' identification with being a “jock” was reported to decrease academic performance for females and African-American students (Eccles, et. al., 2003). This provides an example of a research finding that may too often be generalized to the overall student athlete population. Practitioners and policy makers must carefully consider all mediating variables and their relationships.

Despite the weaknesses of the research, it is important to discuss the reasons for these positive outcomes related to academic achievement. Marsh and Kleitman (2005) have provided a detailed overview of the reasons why these positive outcomes occur.

Positive Outcomes

Developing Self-Identity

First, student athletes interact with peers and this interaction contributes to the student athlete's development of self-identity (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). This identity development leads the student athletes to adopt the values, roles, and behaviors that are reflective of membership in that particular group. Participation in sport and identification with a team, extracurricular activity, or social group fulfills the adolescent need for social relatedness (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). This identity formation process is important in adolescent development and greatly impacts behavior in this particular age group (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). Adolescent students who do not have opportunities to identify with a particular group (i.e., dropout, suicide) or who are affiliated with delinquent social groups are more likely to suffer negative repercussions (i.e., dropout, suicide, substance abuse, discipline problems) (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005).

Implementing School Values

Second, the student's identification and involvement with school sport creates a social network for these student athletes that emphasizes the value of the school, academics, and continuing their education beyond high school (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). This opportunity for the students to develop a commitment and identification with values that emphasize academic achievement is connected to students implementing school values into their daily conduct and a strong commitment to performing well in the academic arena (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). Also, student athletes, particularly team sport athletes, learn about commitment to maintaining positive and intense relationships and interactions with their peers (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). The commitment to maintaining the social network, the social status, and those values associated with the school community should lead to positive effects in student athletes' commitment to academic performance (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005).

Improved Interaction & Enhanced Performance

Third, the interaction that student athletes have with non-parent adults who are competent and place a high value on academic achievement can contribute to enhanced student athlete academic performance (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). Student athletes have direct contact with adults who play a significant role in their lives (e.g., teachers who coach, coaches) and are affiliated with the school context (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). This connection provides another means of communication and reinforcement of the school's values and academic achievement to the student athletes and is transmitted in a domain (i.e., sport) that is highly valued by the student. These significant adults can emphasize and communicate the relationship between academic performance and the privilege and eligibility to participate in sport (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005). Lastly, participation in sport provides students with unique developmental opportunities that positively impact the student's social self-concept. This may lead to a higher academic self-concept and therefore better academic outcomes for student athletes (Marsh & Kleitman, 2005).

Viewpoints

There are several theoretical perspectives that have guided and provided the lens for researching, interpretation, and understanding the relationship between extracurricular school activities and the outcomes of participation. Each of these theoretical perspectives may also be used more explicitly in research to address the relationship between athletics and academic achievement.

Models for Empirical Research

The following five perspectives have been proposed as foundations for empirical research:

• Developmental Model

• Identification/Commitment Model

• Zero-Sum Model

• Threshold Model

• Social Inequity Gap Reduction Model (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

The Developmental Model

This model was proposed by scholars Holland and Andre (see Holland & Andre, 1987) and considers extracurricular school activities to be valuable in that they contribute to the continued or further development of the student beyond the classroom setting. These include both academic-related outcomes and non-academic outcomes (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). This developmental perspective purports that extracurricular activities provide opportunities for students to engage in socialization experiences that will help them to develop social skills and become well-rounded and more mature students (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). The developmental model is not focused on overall academic achievement, but rather the more narrow academic goals of developing mature and socially adept students (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

The Identification / Commitment Model or the Participation-Identification Model

This perspective asserts that joining in extracurricular activities will further a student's commitment, identification, and involvement with his or her school (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). The increase in commitment, identification, and involvement are suggested to enhance specific academic outcomes (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). The participation-identification model as proposed by Finn (see Finn, 1989), proposes that positive academic outcomes are the greatest when students engage in multiple and a variety of school-related activities (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). The participation-identification model predicts that "participation (a behavioral component) under appropriate circumstances is likely to be accompanied by a sense of belonging in school and valuing academic outcomes or identification with school (a psychological component)" (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, p. 471). A large body of research is conducted utilizing the identification/commitment model has lent support for this perspective in terms of the relationship between extracurricular participation, identity formation and commitment to the school along with positive academic outcomes.

The Zero-Sum Model

This model was proposed by Coleman (see Coleman, 1961) and focuses on the negative effects that extracurricular activities have on student outcomes (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). The zero-sum perspective proposes that the time that is invested in participating in social, athletic, and academic pursuits creates a level of competition between each activity (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). Coleman suggested that adolescents focus on peer acceptance and an "irresponsible, hedonistic, and indifferent approach to academic achievement and knowledge transmission" (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002, p.471.), therefore participation in athletics and/or other extracurricular school activities diminishes the focus on and time allotted to academic-related activities and achievement. However, it has been suggested that the zero-sum model could be modified and the instead of emphasizing time as the variable that impacts academic achievement, commitment (i.e., commitment to social, athletic, or academic pursuits) may be the more appropriate variable that impacts a student's academic outcomes (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

The Threshold Model

The threshold model proposes that participation in a moderate number or amount of extracurricular activities has positive outcome, but that there is a point when the number or extent of time spent on extracurricular school activities is too great and the positive outcomes begin to diminish (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). This model represents the middle ground between the benefits posited by the developmental and identification/commitment models and the negative outcomes of the zero-sum model suggesting that there are positive outcomes from participation in extracurricular activities but at some point the time, number of commitments, and identification with the extracurricular activities may take away from the identification that the student has with the school causing academics take a toll (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

The Social Inequity Gap Reduction Model

The model addresses the differences in academic achievement between students who are socioeconomically advantaged or disadvantaged and how involvement in extracurricular activities will have greater positive outcomes for those students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged than those students who are more advantaged thus decreasing the size of the achievement gap between these two groups (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002). The social inequity gap reduction model hypothesizes that there will be larger positive effects and outcomes for disadvantaged students who may have a lower identification with the school prior to participation in extracurricular school activities than those advantaged students who are more likely to already have a high level of identification/commitment to the school (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

Conclusion

Each of these models or perspectives can be used to research and examine the relationship between participation in school athletics and academic achievement. Every model offers a different perspective as to what variables and how these variables contribute to students achieving positive or negative academic outcomes as a result of their participation in extracurricular school activities. These perspectives and research that is conducted within any of these theoretical frameworks can inform administrators as they develop and implement policy related to academic eligibility to participate in school sports.

Athletic participation in public education is typically considered a privilege and not a right, therefore most schools districts and/or state high school athletic associations adopt policies that address the minimum level of academic performance that is acceptable for students to attain without losing the privilege to participate in school sports. There is evidence to link athletic program policies with increases in grade point averages and decreases in absenteeism (Miller et al., 2005) suggesting that policies are effective in keeping student athletes on-track academically. However, without appropriate standards, enforcement, and consistency the policies become ineffective in requiring a particular level of academic performance and instilling the value of academic achievement in the student athletes. Administrators must consider some process of monitoring student athlete academic progress so that students are held accountable for their in-class performance (Goldman, 1991). Administration must also consider the emphasis and focus of the athletic program (e.g., developing character, respect) and ensure that all coaches, teachers, and other staff members understand and model these values and program focus or the athletic program will run the risk of becoming detrimental to student athlete academic achievement.

The debate about athletics and how they impact academic integrity and performance in public education is complex. School sport can provide a venue for student athletes to become more connected to the school and develop the necessary social skills and relationships that will help them seek to achieve academically or it may have no or a deleterious impact on academic achievement if sport involvement becomes to great or is overvalued at the cost of academic values. Research guided by a variety of theoretical perspectives provides information about the relationship between sport participation and academic performance. Administrators must be attentive to research findings and interpret their meanings with consideration for a number of factors as they use this information to inform them when developing and implementing policy related to athletic participation and academic performance.

Terms & Concepts

Extracurricular School Activities: school-sponsored activities (i.e., clubs, teams, groups) in which students participate in addition to their general academic coursework.

Developmental Model: Predicts that extracurricular school activities are valuable because these activities contribute to the continued or further development of the student beyond the classroom setting. (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

Identification / Commitment Model: Also known as the participation - identification model predicts that participation in extracurricular activities will increase a student's commitment, identification, and involvement with his or her school, which leads to improved academic achievement (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

School Sports: School-sponsored interscholastic athletic programs.

Social Inequity Gap Reduction Model: Involvement in extracurricular activities will have greater positive outcomes for those students who are socioeconomically disadvantaged than those students who are more advantaged (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

Threshold Model: Predicts that being involved in a moderate amount of extracurricular activities has a positive outcome, but at a certain point the number or amount of time spent on extracurricular school activities is too great and the positive outcomes begin to diminish (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

Zero-sum Model: Proposes that the time that is invested in participating in social, athletic, and academic pursuits creates a level of competition between each activity, therefore participation in athletic activities will decrease academic achievement (Marsh & Kleitman, 2002).

Bibliography

Carlson, T. (1993). From Ivy League to NBA: A great urban high school falls through the hoop. Policy Review, 64, 36-42. Retrieved June 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9305265124&site=ehost-live

Conn, S. (2012). In college classrooms, the problem is high school athletics. Education Digest, 78, 21-24. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83883063&site=ehost-live

Couch, J.F., Lewis-Adler, K., & Burton, P.A. (2011). Successful athletic programs and academic achievement at high school: Substitutes or complements. Global Education Journal, , 48-60. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=71497185&site=ehost-live

Eccles, J. S., Barber, B. L., Stone, M., & Hunt, J. (2003). Extracurricular activities and adolescent development. Journal of Social Issues 59 , 865-889. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=11351294&site=ehost-live

Feldman, A.F. & Matjasko, J.L. (2005). The role of school-based extracurricular activities in adolescent development: A comprehensive review and future directions. Review of Educational Research, 75 , 159-210.

Goldman, J.P. (1991). Balancing school sports and academics. Education Digest, 56 , 67-70. Retrieved June 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9106101412&site=ehost-live

Marsh, H. W. & Kleitman, S. (2002). Extracurricular school activities: The good, the bad, and the non-linear. Harvard Educational Review, 72 , 464-511.

Marsh, H. & Kleitman, S. (2005). School performance. Berkshire Encyclopedia of World Sport, 3. Retrieved June, 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database SportDiscus. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=22893892&site=ehost-live

Miller, K. E., Melnick, M. J., Barnes, G. M. Farrell, M. P., & Sabo, D. (2005). Untangling the links among athletic involvement, gender, race, and adolescent academic outcomes. Sociology of Sport Journal, 22 , 178-193. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database SportDiscus. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=17323502&site=ehost-live

NFHS. (2006). Participation in high school sports increases again: Confirms NFHS commitment to stronger leadership. Retrieved June 29, 2007, from National Federation of State High School Associations http://www.nfhs.org/web/2006/09/participation_in_high_school_sports_increases_again_confirms_nf.aspx

Rosengren, J. (2005). Is winning the game failing the student? U.S. Catholic, 70 . Retrieved June 5, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15153725&site=ehost-live

Toporek, B. (2013). Does athletic success come at the expense of academic success?. Education Week, 32, 5. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85766962&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Coleman, J.S. (1961). The adolescent society. New York: Free Press of Glencoe.

Eccles, J. S. & Barber, B.L. (1999). Student council, volunteering, basketball, or marching band: What kind of extracurricular involvement matters? Journal of Adolescent Research, 14 , 10-43.

Goldman, J.P. (1990). Balancing school sports and academics. The School Administrator, 11, 8-16.

Holland, A. & Andre, T. (1987). Participation in extracurricular activities in secondary school: What is known, what need to be known? Review of Educational Research, 57, 437-466.

Marsh, H.W. (1992). Extracurricular activities: Beneficial extension of the traditional curriculum or subversion of academic goals? Journal of Educational Psychology, 84 , 553-562.

Marsh, H.W. (1993). The effects of participation in sport during the last 2 years of high school. Sociology of Sport Journal, 10 , 18-43.

Marsh, H. & Kleitman, S. (2003). Consequences of sport participation in high school. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 25 , 205-228.

Spady, E.E. (1970). Lament for the letterman: Effects of peer status and extracurricular activities on goals and achievement. American Journal of Sociology, 75, 680-702.

Steiner, H., McQuivery, R.W., Pavelski, R., Pitts, T., & Kramer, H. (2000). Adolescents and sports: Risk or benefit? Clinical Pediatrics, 39 , 161-166.