Class Size

Abstract

The main challenge to reducing class size is funding, a problem that is more acute in high-poverty districts and communities, resulting in disparities in the number of students per classroom based on social class. A critical question for school districts is whether reducing class size in fact leads to improved student performance and, if so, which students stand to gain the most. In addition, it is important to distinguish between class size and student-to-teacher ratio.

Overview

Class size, the number of students in a classroom, is a critical issue, especially in public schools, which do not have the ability to turn away students. Because a classroom may have more than one staff member, class size can also be measured by the ratio of students to staff. The additional staff member, however, could be another teacher, such as a special-education support instructor, or a classroom aide. It is, therefore, important to define at the outset of each discussion on class size what criteria are being used.

The two greatest obstacles to reducing class size are available funding and the ability to recruit teachers. These challengers are most acute in communities in which most residents are poor. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, by 2013 one in five school-age children lived in poverty, a number that increased from one in seven in 2000 (Kena et al., 2015). In addition, high-poverty, high-minority, and low-achieving schools have the hardest time recruiting and retaining high-quality teachers (Malkus, Mulvaney-Hoyer & Sparks, 2015).

National average class sizes in the United States was 21.2 for elementary schools and 26.8 for secondary schools. However, there were considerable variations in class size among states, ranging from a high of 27.4 (Utah) to a low of 16.6 (Vermont) for elementary schools and a high of 34.5 (Nevada) to a low of 18.7 (Alaska) for secondary schools (Snyder & Dillow, 2015). In addition, within each state, there are sharp variations, especially between wealthier and poorer school districts. Worldwide, the average class size is 24.1, with the United States coming in at 27.0, using a less comprehensive survey, which accounts for the difference between these figures and those of NCES above. Countries ranged from 17.3 (Belgium and Estonia) to 35.5 (Singapore) (OECD, 2014).

The national average pupil-to-teacher ratios in public elementary and secondary schools decreased from 17:1 to 15:2 between 1996 and 2010 and is projected to further decrease to 14:4 in 2021 (Husar & Bailey, 2011). This is a notable decrease from 1955 (the earliest year for which such statistics are available), with a figure of 26:9. The sharpest drop in the pupil-to-teacher ratio was in the period between 1955 and 1985, with an increase between 1988 and 1994, along with a slight rise between 2009 and 2012 (Kena et al., 2015). However, private schools have seen a much sharper drop, overtaking public schools in 1972 (Snyder & Dillow, 2015; Kena et al., 2015).

Further Insights

The topic of class size goes back to classical antiquity. The Greek orator Isocrates opened an academy in 329 BCE and limited his school to eight pupils. The Roman orator Quintillian, in his Institutio Oratoria (c. 95 CE), agreed. However, Isocrates’ students were Athenian statesmen and generals, hardly typical of the general population of ancient Greece or even its greatest city. The Jewish rabbinic scholar Moses Maimonides (1835–1204) opined that a class with a single teacher should have no more than 25 students, beyond which an assistant would be needed. If there are more than 40 pupils, he proposed, there should be at least two classes with two teachers. The early twentieth century philosopher John Dewey, often referred to as "the father of American education," recommended that children should be taught in groups of 8 to 12, according to the type of students and subject matter being taught.

Public school is supposed to be the great equalizer in the United States, providing every child with an education that would enable him or her to succeed in life as an adult, even capable of helping children of poor families lift themselves out of poverty. Although there have always been disparities between the schools of the rich and those of less advantaged families, a number of studies have documented that this gap has increased and continues to do so. During the 1950s and 1960s, race was the main factor in determining school quality. With the landmark 1954 Brown v. Board of Education Supreme Court case and the Civil Rights Act of 1964, among other important developments, race (regardless of income) became a less significant contributing factor; family income has, in turn, become the primary determinant in educational success (Tavernise, 2012; Reardon, 2011). Schools in districts with less money, for example, often cannot hire the extra teachers needed to reduce class size.

For U.S. public schools, there is a body of evidence that class size matters. It is not the sole determinant of student outcomes, but it is an important one, and students in the earliest grades and poorest, most disadvantaged schools have the most to gain or lose (Schanzenbach, 2014). Class size affects the amount of time a teacher can devote to each student during class, but class size impacts more than instruction. Teachers do much of their work after school hours outside the classroom planning lessons, correcting assignments, and grading assessments. The more students a teacher has, the less time he or she will be able to devote to such tasks and may have to create assignments that are quicker to grade, such as multiple-choice quizzes rather than essays requiring higher-level thinking skills.

Viewpoints

A 1979 landmark meta-analysis, or review of previous research, strongly supports the benefits of reducing class size on student outcomes, especially in classes of 20 students or fewer (Glass & Smith, 1979). Highly noteworthy is Tennessee’s Project STAR (Student Teacher Achievement Ratio), a four-year study begun in 1985 and followed up with the Lasting Benefits Study and Project Challenge. It remains one of the largest (6,500 pupils from 80 schools well represented with students of ethnic minority and urban backgrounds) controlled experiments on the effects of class size in the primary grades (Kindergarten through grade 3) on student performance over time. Project STAR put forth two definitions of reduced class size: classes of 13 to 17 students and one teacher, and classes of 22 to 26 students with a teacher and an aide; it defined classes of more than 22 students as large.

The study reported "substantial improvement in early learning and cognitive studies" as a result of smaller class sizes (Mosteller, 1995; Schanzenbach, 2014). The follow-up studies supported the initial findings. However, some educators have been critical of Project STAR, contending it did not include sufficient teacher training or take into account the experience of the teachers involved, according to the Center for Public Education. Phased in during the 1996–1997 school year, Wisconsin’s Student Achievement Guarantee in Education (SAGE) Program focused on primary school grades in high-poverty areas, with the goal of limiting these classes to 15 students. Classes of up to 30 students (or two adjoining classes separated by a divider) could be taught by two team teachers or a regular teacher assisted by specialized floating teachers (e.g., a reading instructor) throughout the school day. Professional development for teachers has been part of the SAGE Program. A third large-scale study, the California Class Size Reduction (CSR) program also showed improvements in the statewide initiative to reduce class sizes. In New York City, the leading proponent of class size reduction is the New York City-based advocacy group Class Size Matters.

It should be noted, however, there is still disagreement as to whether benefits of reducing class size exist. In a large-scale study, class size was not a significant factor in reducing the gap between low and high achievers (Konstantopoulos, 2008; Konstantopoulos & Chung, 2009). Most critics of class size reduction cite studies that show that teacher expertise and talent is more important in determining student academic achievement and success. The class size reduction program (CSR), undertaken in California in 1996, found that smaller classes alone were not sufficient. Proponents of class size reduction counter that both expert teachers and less-effective and less-experienced teachers alike would benefit from smaller classes. Others say both criteria should be considered but disagree as to the extent of each, as well as at what point reducing class size ceases to be cost-effective. Furthermore, there is debate as to ideal class sizes according to each grade level. Most educators agree that smaller class size is more important in the primary grades than at secondary levels.

Another area of disagreement concerns whether class size reduction alone is sufficient to improve student outcomes. Educators cite the fact that some schools in high-needs (and difficult-to-staff) districts have had to hire inexperienced teachers to meet their goal of reducing class size. Other schools, already overcrowded, have had to convert other spaces, such as art and music rooms, special-education resource centers, and even libraries into classroom space, or they have had to rent portable (temporary) buildings. Many of these measures take funds away from providing books, technology, or after-school (extracurricular) activities.

An alternative to class size is the student-to-teacher ratio, an average denoting the number of students in a school divided by the number of full-time equivalent (FTE) teachers. FTE is a statistical unit: a full-time teacher or two part- or half-time teachers are counted as one FTE. This measurement, however, is controversial. A large classroom may have two faculty members; in that case, the student-to-teacher ratio would be low but the class size large. Furthermore, FTE often includes all instructional staff, including aides or assistants who do not meet the full definition of a teacher in terms of state licensing and certification. Other instructional staff can include librarians, speech and language therapists, physical and occupational therapists, and other support personnel who may be assigned to a specific student or a group of pupils, making the student-to-teacher ratio a misleading standard of measure. According to the Great Schools Partnership, another public-school advocacy group, the discrepancy between class size and student-to-teacher ratio could be 9 or 10 students; in other words, a school with a student-to-teacher ratio of 20:1 could have an average class size as high as 30. Others argue in favor of using lower student-to-teacher ratios as a measurement for classes in which complex subjects (such as mathematics or the sciences) are taught. Even among those who agree that lowering the student-to-teacher ratio would improve overall student achievement, there is no consensus about the point at which such benefits will be realized or cost will outweigh benefits.

Terms & Concepts

Achievement Gap: The disparity in the performance of one group of students with another group or the national norm or average. These groups are usually defined by socioeconomic status, race, and ethnicity.

Elementary School: A school comprising grades 8 and below. Schools dedicated to grades 5 or 6 to grades 8 or 9 are usually referred to as middle schools.

English-Language Learner (ELL): A student whose native language is other than English, having been born in a non-English-speaking country or raised in a family whose primary language was other than English.

Expenditures per Pupil: A statistical indication of the average amount of money a school spends for each student enrolled, measured by the school’s total expenditures divided by the number of students. This figure is an average, as students with special needs and those whose primary language is other than English require additional services at extra cost.

Full-Time Equivalent (FTE): The measure of teaching capacity whereby a full-time teacher or two part- or half-time teachers are counted as one FTE.

Primary Grades: Defined as grade levels Kindergarten through grade 3. They are of particular importance for early literacy and identifying students with special needs for early intervention. Much of the effort in class size reduction focuses on the primary grades.

Public School: A school or other institution deriving most or all its financial support from public funds; in the United States, they are managed by officials elected or appointed by the local school district.

Secondary School: A school for students beyond elementary or middle school, up to and including grade 12. Middle schools dedicated to grades 5 or 6 to grades 8 or 9 are sometimes referred to as junior high schools and can be considered secondary schools.

Student Outcomes: The learning objectives or standards teachers, school administrators, or government officials seek. Student outcomes can be measured by various criteria. One measurement includes standardized tests; however there is considerable controversy over the use of these tests and whether they are valid and reliable.

Student-to-Teacher Ratio: The number of students in a school divided by the number of teachers.

Bibliography

Center for Public Education (n.d.). Class size and student achievement: Research review. Online. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from Center for Public Education. http://www.centerforpubliceducation.org/Main-Menu/Organizing-a-school/Class-size-and-student-achievement-At-a-glance/Class-size-and-student-achievement-Research-review.html

Chingos, M. (2012). Class size and student outcomes: Research and policy implications. Journal of Policy Analysis & Management, 32(2) 411–438. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=86235909&site=ehost-live

Glass, E., & Smith, M. (1979). Meta-analysis of research on class size and achievement. Education Evaluation and Policy Analysis, 1(2), 2–16. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18691995&site=ehost-live

GreatSchools Staff (n.d.). How important is class size? Oakland, CA: GreatSchools. Online. Retrieved January 3, 2016, from http://www.greatschools.org/gk/articles/class-size/

Hussar, W., & Bailey, T. (2011). Projections of education statistics to 2020 (NCES 2011-026). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved January 3, 2016, from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2011/2011026.pdf

Kena, G., Musu-Gillette, L., Robinson, J., Wang, X., Rathbun, A., Zhang, J., Wilkinson-Flicker, S.,… & Dunlop Velez, E. (2015). The condition of education 2015 (NCES 2011-144). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015144.pdf

Konstantopoulos, S. (2008). Do small classes reduce the achievement gap between low and high achievers? Elementary School Journal, 108(4) 275–291. Retrieved January 3, 2016, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=31441681&site=ehost-live

Konstantopoulos, S., & Chung, V. (2009). What are the long-term effects of small classes? Evidence from the lasting benefits study. American Journal of Education, 116(1), 125–154. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=45073947&site=ehost-live

Malkus, N., Mulvaney-Hoyer, K., Sparks, D. (2015). Teaching vacancies in difficult-to-staff teaching positions in public schools (NCES 2015-065). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubs2015/2015065.pdf

Mosteller, F. (1995). The Tennessee study of class size in the early school grades. The Future of Children, 5(2), 113–127. Retrieved January 3, 2016, from https://www.princeton.edu/futureofchildren/publications/docs/05‗02‗08.pdf

OECD (2014). TALIS 2013 results: An international perspective on teaching and learning, TALIS, OECD Publishing. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://www.oecd.org/edu/school/talis-excel-figures-and-tables.htm

Schanzenbach, D. (2014). Does class size matter? Boulder, CO: National Education Policy Center. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://nepc.colorado.edu/publication/does-class-size-matter

Snyder, T., & Dillow, S. (2015). Digest of education statistics 2013 (NCES 2015-011). Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pubsinfo.asp?pubid=2015011

Tavernise, S. (2012). Poor dropping further behind rich in school. New York Times, Feb. 10, p. A1. Online as Education gap grows between rich and poor, studies say. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://www.nytimes.com/2012/02/10/education/education-gap-grows-between-rich-and-poor-studies-show.html?‗r=0

Suggested Reading

Class Size Matters (2015). Bibliography of class size research. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://www.classsizematters.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/12/class-size-bibliography‗formatted.pdf

Darling-Hammond, L. (2010). The flat world and education: How America’s commitment to equity will determine our future (Multicultural Education Series). New York, NY: Teachers College Press.

Delavan, G. (2009). The teacher’s attention: Why our kids must and can get smaller schools and classes. Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.

Fan, F. (2012). Class size: Effects on students’ academic achievements and some remedial measures. Research in Education, 87, 95–98. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=77685410&site=ehost-live

Harfitt, G. (2015). Class size reduction: Key insights from secondary school classrooms. Singapore: Springer.

Kornrich, S., & Furstenberg, R. (2013). Investing in children: Changes in parental spending on children, 1972–2007. Demography, 50(1) 1–23.

National Council of Teachers of English (2014). Why class size matters today. Urbana, IL: NCTE. Retrieved January 7, 2016 from http://www.ncte.org/positions/statements/why-class-size-matters

Paufler, N., Amrein-Beardsley, A. (2014). The random assignment of students into elementary classrooms: Implications for value-added analyses and interpretations. American Educational Research Journal, 51(2) 328–362. Retrieved January 6, 2016 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=95349230&site=ehost-live

Reardon, S. F. (2011). The widening academic achievement gap between the rich and the poor: New evidence and possible explanations. In R. Murnane & G. Duncan (Eds.), Whither Opportunity? Rising Inequality and the Uncertain Life Chances of Low-Income Children. New York, NY: Russell Sage Foundation Press. Retrieved January 3, 2016 from http://cepa.stanford.edu/sites/default/files/reardon%20whither%20opportunity%20-%20chapter%205.pdf