College Placement Counseling

America's more than 14 million high school students are entering the most diverse and technologically advanced workplace in our country's history. As schools seek to prepare students for the next leg of their educational journey with appropriate career and college placement counseling, they face many challenges. Some of these challenges include a nationwide shortage of counselors, an increasingly diverse student population, the college-for-all movement, the need for earlier counseling, and the need for parent education. The American School Counseling Association is working to develop standards and model frameworks to provide guidance for schools. Educators can also turn to other schools to find models for providing effective career and college placement counseling services.

Keywords Advanced Placement; Career Academies; Career Counseling; Career Exploration; Career Guidance; Career Planning; College Bound Students; College Entrance Examinations; College-for-All Movement; College Placement Counseling; College Preparation; Dual Enrollment; High School Counseling; Job Shadowing; Parent Education; Postsecondary Education

Guidance & Counseling > College Placement Counseling

Overview

Today's youth are growing up in a time of rapid change when our country continues to become increasingly more diverse and technologically advanced (American School Counselor Association, Why Secondary, n.d.). Postsecondary education is considered a requirement for both the success of individual students and of our country’s economic stability (Hughey & Hughey, 1999; Lehman, 1996; Valadez, 1998; Wahl & Blackhurst, 2000). Schools of the 21st century are challenged to prepare students "for the next leg of their educational journey" (National Commission on the High School Senior Year, 2001, p. 29; Gibbons, 2006, ¶ 2). They also attempt to “help students make future plans that are both realistic in nature and clearly related to their career goals” (Feller, 2003; Gibbons, 2006, ¶ 2). These ventures are especially important for students who are underrepresented in postsecondary education, along with non-white students and first-generation students whose parents did not attend college (Fallon, 1997; Horn & Nunez, 2000; Valadez).

The more than 14 million high school students in the United States who are in the final phases of their transition to adulthood need support and guidance that will enable them to understand themselves, their interests, and their abilities as they seek to make informed decisions about postsecondary education options and their future careers. In the school environment, this assistance is the primary responsibility of counseling programs.

School Counseling Programs

School counseling in the United States began with a narrow focus on vocational counseling nearly a century ago (Hatch & Bowers, 2002). As the scope of counseling programs evolved from this limited beginning to a more comprehensive approach that discusses the academic, career and personal/social development of every child, they differed significantly from state to state, district to district, and even school to school in both theoretical and philosophical perspectives. Consequently, school counseling programs across the country developed with little consistency. They were typically viewed as supplemental services instead of as an important piece of the academic surroundings and educational counselors were not regarded as integral partners in student performance (American School Counselor Association, The ASCA National Model, n.d.). Counselor roles varied dramatically, including quasi-administrative and clerical duties that often had little to do with counseling. “Many school counselors spent 80% of their time meeting the needs of 20% of their students, who were typically either the high achieving or high risk students” (Hatch & Bowers, 2002, p. 15).

In an effort to improve the quality and consistency of school advice program nationwide, The ASCA National Model: A Framework for School Counseling Programs was advanced by the American School Counselor Association in 2003 to provide a framework for school counseling teams to create, arrange, actualize, control, and assess programs with a focus on student success. The national model reflects trends in “current education reform, including the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, which mandates that all federally funded programs are accountable for and directly related to student learning” (Hatch & Bowers, 2002, p. 15). The model reverses the former 80-20% trend, recommending that 80% of a counselor's workday be spent in direct service to meeting the needs of all students. “By implementing a program based on the model, schools and school districts can:

• Establish the school counseling program as an integral component of the academic mission of the school;

• Ensure every student has equitable access to the school counseling program;

• Identify and deliver the knowledge and skills all students should acquire;

• Ensure that the school counseling program is comprehensive in design and is delivered systematically to all students (American School Counselor Association, Why Secondary School Counselors, n.d., p. 37).

Career Development Programs

In the area of career development, ASCA national standards include “three competencies students should obtain by participating in a school counseling program, including:

• Students will acquire the skills to investigate the world of work in relation to knowledge of self and to make informed career decisions;

• Students will employ strategies to achieve future career goals with success and satisfaction; and

• Students will understand the relationship between personal qualities, education, training, and the world of work” (American School Counselor Association, Why Secondary School Counselors, n.d., p. 41).

School counselors help students achieve these competencies utilizing a variety of strategies, including activities such as:

• Helping students develop realistic career goals by evaluating their abilities, interests, talents, and personality traits;

• Advising students and parents on academic programs that will prepare students for college application and admission;

• Arranging dual/concurrent enrollment and Advanced Placement credits for college-bound students;

• Helping to prepare students for college admissions tests;

• Educating students on college entrance requirements, as well as the requirements needed to succeed in various college programs;

• Educating students on requirements needed for entry into and success within specific careers;

• Informing students and parents about postsecondary education financing options;

• Helping students develop career portfolios, which may include test and grades results, student work samples, and resumes and cover letters to prospective employers;

• Arranging job shadowing, work placements, and community-based learning programs that give students direct work experience;

• Coordinating workshops, classes, focus groups, and presentations that focus on career planning;

• Coordinating career information centers, career education programs, and career fairs; and

• Providing specialized counseling and intervention services for individual students. (U. S. Department of Education, 2005; High School Guidance Counseling, 2006; Rosenbaum & Person, 2003)

Providing quality counseling services for all students presents a significant challenge for schools, compounded by factors that include school counselor shortages, meeting the needs of diverse students, the college-for-all movement, the need for earlier counseling, and the need for parent education. But research indicates that counseling is a key ingredient to raising student achievement and insuring postsecondary success for high school students (Bradby & Dykman, 2003). In the High Schools That Work: Whole School Reform study of 1100 high schools, graduates who attended 424 career-oriented high schools had higher achievement than those attending typical high schools from 1996 to 1998. The career-oriented high schools in this study, often called career academies, featured challenging “coursework, good working relationships between academic and career/technical teachers, and better communication among students and guidance counselors” (Bradby & Dykman, 2003, p. 1). The research noted a "strong" correlation between performance and counseling. "Schools in which students talked more often with their teachers and counselors about their high school program increased their average scores. The reverse was also true - schools with students spending less time talking with their teachers and counselors showed decreases in test scores" (Bradby & Dykman, 2003, p. 3).

Subsequent studies conducted by the Southern Region Education Board as a part of its school reform initiative, High Schools That Work, have verified that effective school counseling programs contribute to greater student achievement (What really works, 2006; Bottoms, Han, & Presson, 2007; Bottoms, Han, & Presson, 2006). Guidance is one of the ten High Schools That Work- identified "key practices" of effective schools and is defined as a strategy that "involves students and their parents in a guidance and advisement system that develops positive relationships and ensures completion of an accelerated program of study with an academic or a career/technical concentration" (Bottoms, Han, & Presson, p. 11).

Further Insights

Meeting the counseling needs of all students is a significant challenge for today's schools that are additionally charged with the responsibility of meeting the educational needs of all students. Issues that contribute to this challenge are discussed here.

School Counselor Shortage

In many school districts a shortage of support personnel, including social workers, school psychologists, and guidance counselors, exists (American School Counselor Association, Effectiveness of School Counseling, n.d.). Student caseloads are too high for counselors to effectively provide services to all students. Although the American School Counselor Association advises a 250 to 1 ratio of students to counselors, the national average for the 2004-2005 was 479 to 1 (American School Counselor Association, Careers/Roles, n.d.). Counselors are expected to play multiple roles and meet varied student needs. In addition to career counseling, school counselors provide guidance related to personal, family, educational, and mental health concerns (High school guidance counseling, 2006). Their day-to-day responsibilities range from providing conflict resolution classes for students to identifying cases of domestic abuse that can affect student performance.

Diverse Student Needs

Today's students are the most diverse in our country's history—racially, culturally, and linguistically. Minority students, including African American and Hispanic students, and students from lower socioeconomic groups are entering college in record numbers, yet their attrition rates are among the highest (Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, & Davis, 2006). Many of these students attend college as the first ones in their families to do so. Because of this, the students often lack sufficient support, educational preparation, and proper anticipation of what college will be like, as they have no family members to inform them. Counselors can’t simply take for granted that every college-bound student is the same and should be informed to the same extent and in similar ways. In order to increase their chances for success, first-generation college students need skills, knowledge and management that other students may already have access to. While the majority of underserved students indicate they intend to go to college, many lack an understanding of the steps involved in planning and preparing for college, and therefore fail to act in time (Pathways to College Network, n.d.). The ASCA National Model posits the “need for school counselors to advocate for all children and help them transition from high school. This means that counselors need to be aware of barriers that hinder student progress and how to solve them” (Gibbons, et al, 2006, ¶ 5). This challenge is daunting, given the diverse needs of today's students.

Among the diverse students continuing their education beyond high school are increasing numbers of students with disabilities. To meet the needs of these students, counselors need to help them understand their individual disabilities and “explore the relationship between their skills and abilities and potential future careers” (Miltsom & Hartley, 2005, ¶ 15). Additionally, counselors need to help these students and their parents understand disability-related law related to postsecondary education services and employment. To be most effective in working with students with disabilities, counselors should collaborate with special education teachers.

College-for-All Movement

Three revolutionary changes have instigated a "college-for-all" movement that has resulted in more young people entering college than ever before (Rosenbaum & Person, 2003). First, the skill demands of the labor market have increased, rewarding young people who earn college degrees. Second, college has become more accessible. Third, and most remarkable, many community colleges now have open admissions policies, resulting in the admittance of all concerned students, no matter what their level of high school performance is. These developments have led to the perhaps misguided belief that every student is capable of attending college and therefore should make every attempt to go. In reality, while the majority of these students may start college, less than half of them will graduate with a degree. In this "college-for-all" atmosphere it is difficult for high school counselors to dissuade low-achieving students from planning to attend college. Identifying gaps in students' knowledge on the topic of higher education and future occupations, informing students about the high risk of college dropout, and introducing alternative opportunities to college that may be more appropriate for these students places an additional burden on school counselors whose workloads are already quite heavy.

Earlier Counseling

Career and college placement counseling activities typically focus on secondary-level students who are nearing graduation. In a North Carolina study of 222 high school freshmen, students who had started making career decisions reported basing their choices on what they had learned about careers from television (which may be less than accurate in depiction) or from their parents (Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, & Davis, 2006). In this visionary stage of occupational development, typical of their age, these students expressed an interest in careers primarily on the basis of whether they felt they would like to have a career. The majority indicated they “had not taken a career interest inventory, talked with the school counselor, written a resume, worked or volunteered in their field of interest, nor taken classes related to their career interests” (Gibbons, et al, 2006, ¶ 20). Many lacked information about college costs and tended to significantly overestimate tuition costs.

A 2007 nationwide online survey of 1,814 middle school students indicated the students were optimistic about their future high school and college careers but lacked information to help them make decisions to ensure future success (Gewertz, 2007). Although 92% of the students surveyed indicated they would probably attend college, 83% said they had "little or no information" about which classes they would need to take to graduate from high school.

Students need access to career and college placement counseling during their middle school and early high school years so that they can have opportunities to explore career opportunities, consider various postsecondary options, and gain information about social issues like career trends and future work outlooks. “Accurate information about careers and college planning is needed early on to prevent students and their parents from eliminating college as a future option due to inaccurate knowledge, especially concerning tuition costs. First-generation college students and their parents especially need early and ongoing support and encouragement” (Gibbons, et al, 2006, ¶ 35).

Ideally, a developmental approach should guide career and college placement counseling (Trusty, Niles, & Carney, 2005). Students should be introduced to the concept of education-career planning during elementary school. In middle school, individualized student planning should become more specific, based upon individual student interests, which then translates into proper plans for high school. These plans then become a starting point for more detailed planning about educational and career-oriented futures that will guide students' postsecondary plans.

Parent Education

Parents are an imperative and effective resource in helping their children plan their future careers (Gibbons, Borders, Wiles, Stephan, & Davis, 2006). Due to a number of different aspects, including lack of information, language barriers, time constraints, and child care and transportation issues, many parents are unable to effectively help their children (Pathways to College Network, n.d.). Instead, they rely upon instructors and counselors to advise their students on college placement and career planning.

School counselors are faced with the challenge of involving all parents as partners in the planning process. Creating an atmosphere of trust and a family-friendly environment through adoption of programs that bring students and parents together to plan educational and career goals is crucial. An integrated, collaborative approach to career and college placement counseling that involves school counselors, teachers, students, and parents is recommended by The ASCA National Model.

Applications

Recognizing the need to provide quality college placement counseling for students, programs that exemplify best practices have been developed. Profiles of one school-level program, one state-level program and one unique public-private partnership program are described here.

High School at Moorpark College

Believing that career paths for students should start in high school and continue perfectly through college, a different option for high school juniors and seniors was conceived that is located on a community college campus in California (Bortolussi, 2006). Students who attend the high school are taught with a small learning community approach. They participate in a curriculum that integrates high school coursework, college classes connected to student career choices for which they receive dual credit, and activities that allow them to explore career options, including field trips, guest speakers, and internships. High school and college students work together on career projects related to their career interests. Students usually graduate from the high school with at least one year of college credit. In this unique K-12/college partnership, high school and college counselors work together to create a seamless, student-centered path that enables students to make a smooth transition from education to career.

Project 720

In an effort to reach the goal that "All Pennsylvania students must graduate from high school prepared to enter college and the high-skills workforce," (Pennsylvania Department of Education, n.d.) the state launched Project 720 in 2004 (Gewertz, 2006). The project title reflects the number of days most students spend during their high school career, emphasizing the importance of this time period in preparing for future careers. The initiative seeks to improve student preparation for college and work and to aid students in seeing "explicit connections" between the information learned in high school and their plans after school.

Districts that have chosen to participate in Project 720 voluntarily implement project elements over three years that are designed to make coursework more rigorous and make the path to postsecondary education a clearer one. Project 720 schools are required to create small-school environments and provide individualized counseling for each student. Participating schools must use a college-preparatory curriculum that aligns with postsecondary requirements. Counselors work with students and their parents to develop "life plans" that identify student aspirations and strategies to reach their goals.

High Horizons

A unique public-private partnership in Colorado is working to address the state's "paradox" that while one third of the state's residents have college degrees, only one in five ninth grade high school students go to college and graduate on time (Borga, 2006). The Fund for Colorado's Future, an education reform group based in Denver, hired the Princeton Review, a New York City-based test-preparation and tutoring company, to implement a $3 million pilot program to help students continue their education beyond high school with the assistance of additional advisers and computer software. Recognizing that high school counselors are often overwhelmed, the High Horizons project hired advisers to help students explore majors, choose potential colleges, and learn about financial aid and scholarship sources through meetings and utilization of a Princeton Review Web portal called Guidance Center. Additionally, the advisers trained teachers and other staff members to use the software while updating them on college-admission requirements, helped parents complete financial aid forms, and hosted college-preparation summer programs for students, reaching approximately 17,000 students in five school districts during the three-year pilot program.

Terms & Concepts

Advanced Placement: Advanced placement policies permit students who have sufficient academic credit or test scores to bypass coursework.

Career Academies: Career academies are smaller schools that focus on themes to integrate educational curriculums with those that are more career-based, allowing for the provision of individual guidance to students and the creation of occupational connections in their fields of interest.

Career Counseling: Career counseling includes activities designed to assist students in exploring and selecting appropriate career options.

College-for-All Movement: The college-for-all movement refers to a trend that assumes all students should attend college. This trend has evolved as the result of the additional skill requirements of the U.S. career industry, dramatic growth of college and university attendance, and rise of open admissions procedures in many postsecondary institutions, especially community colleges.

College Entrance Examinations: College Entrance Examinations are aptitude, achievement, or other measures of achievement evaluation used to help determine admission of students to colleges, universities, or graduate or professional schools.

Dual Enrollment: Dual enrollment programs give high school students the option to enroll in both college and high school and to simultaneously earn degrees in credits in both.

Job Shadowing: Job shadowing activities provide opportunities for students to spend time with people working in varied careers on the job and observe workplace tasks in order to determine potential career interest.

Parent Education: Parent education involves instruction or information directed toward parents.

Postsecondary Education: Postsecondary education includes education experiences beyond the secondary level, discluding adult education and high school equivalency programs.

Bibliography

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Gibbons, M., Borders, L. D., Wiles, M., Stephan, J., & Davis, P. (2006). Career and college planning needs of ninth graders--as reported by ninth graders. Professional School Counseling, 10 , 168-178. Retrieved September 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23578674&site=ehost-live

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Lautz, J., Hawkins, D., & Pérez, A.B. (2012). The high school visit: Providing college counseling and building crucial k-16 links among students, counselors and admission officers. Journal of College Admission, , 108-116. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=73914866&site=ehost-live

Lehman, G. (1996). A community's commitment to career-planning for all: Clarity and commitment. Journal of Career Development, 23 , 23-31. Retrieved October 18, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=16515480&site=ehost-live

Milsom, A. & Hartley, M. (2005). Assisting students with learning disabilities transitioning to college: what school counselors should know. Professional School Counseling, 8 , 436-441. Retrieved September 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17402990&site=ehost-live National Commission on the High School Senior Year. (2001). Raising our sights: No high school senior left behind. Princeton, NJ: Woodrow Wilson National Fellowship Foundation. Pathways to College Network. (n.d.). Social success: An essential ingredient to success. Retrieved September 12, 2007, from Pathways to College Network

Pennsylvania Department of Education. (n.d.). Transforming Pennsylvania's high schools. Retrieved September 12, 2007, from Project 720 http://www.project720.org/ Rosenbaum, J. & Person, A. (2003). Beyond college for all: Policies and practices to improve transitions into college and jobs. Professional School Counseling, 6 , 252-261. Retrieved September 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9974401&site=ehost-live

Southern Region Education Board. (2006). What really works? Schools succeed when using the key practices of High Schools That Work. Retrieved September 8, 2007, from Southern Region Education Board http://www.sreb.org/programs/hstw/publications/PubsDisplay.asp?SubSectionID=30

Stephan, J.L., & Rosenbaum, J.E. (2013). Can high schools reduce college enrollment gaps with a new counseling model?. Educational Evaluation & Policy Analysis, 35, 200-219. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87373417&site=ehost-live

Trusty, J., Niles, S., & Carney, J. (2005). Education-career planning and middle school counselors. (2005). Professional School Counseling, 9 , 136-143. Retrieved September 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19234059&site=ehost-live

U. S. Department of Education (2005). College and career guidance and counseling. Retrieved September 8, 2007, from U. S. Department of Education http://www.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ovae/pi/cte/guidcoun2.html Valadez, J. R. (1998). Applying to college: Race, class, and gender differences. Professional School Counseling, 1 , 14-20. Retrieved October 18, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=747260&site=ehost-live

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Suggested Reading

Conescu, R., Lewiss, A., Mackinnon, A., & Weissberg, A. (2000). New rules, new roles: Preparing all young people for a changing world. A report on career exploration and preparation for young people. Washington, DC: Wallace-Reader's Digest Funds. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 450 220). Retrieved October 18, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/16/d9/d7.pdf

Gibbons, M., Borders, L. D., Wiles, M., Stephan, J., & Davis, P. (2006). Career and college planning needs of ninth graders--as reported by ninth graders. Professional School Counseling, 10 , 168-178. Retrieved September 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23578674&site=ehost-live

Holcomb-McCoy, D. Transitioning to high school: Issues and challenges for African American Students. Professional School Counseling, 10 , 253-260. Retrieved October 18, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25435713&site=ehost-live

Southern Region Education Board. (2004). 2004 outstanding practices using rigor, relevance and relationships to improve student achievement: How some schools do it. Atlanta, GA: Author.

What Works Clearinghouse. (2007). Middle college high school: What Works Clearinghouse intervention report. Washington, DC: Author.