Continuing Education

Since, like many other professions, the field of education is constantly changing, instructors need to stay up to date on instructional methods and best practices. Continuing education, also called professional development, helps instructors learn and implement new pedagogies and technologies to improve student outcomes. Many of these initiatives are funded by the federal government, and are used to help meet the requirements of the No Child Left Behind Act. Continuing education can take many forms, ranging from the general instruction of large groups, to individualized training sessions, to online distance learning. With such a wide range of options available, schools and districts need to carefully plan and evaluate continuing education programs to ensure that they are effective and helpful to instructors.

Keywords Class Size Reduction Program; Continuing Education; Distance Education; Eisenhower Professional Development Program (EPDP); Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965; Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium; No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB); Professional Development; Standards-Based Reform

Teacher Education > Continuing Education

Overview

Research has shown that the best prepared instructors have the most successful students (Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006). One of the most important goals of teacher continuing education is to provide teachers with the latest information on instructional methods and best practices. Once armed with this information, they are better prepared to face classroom challenges, elicit change, and improve student achievement (Barnett, 2003).

Continuing education came to the forefront education discussions during the late 1980s and early 1990s when states and school districts began adopting standards-based reform programs. In order for standards-based reform to work, instructors needed to be able to promote the growth of basic knowledge, advanced thinking, and problem-solving skills in their students (Loucks-Horsley, Hewson, Love & Stiles, 1998; National Commission on Teaching & America's Future [NCTAF], 1996, as cited in Desimone, Smith & Ueno, 2006). This agenda required instructors to have a deeper comprehension of the subjects they taught (Ma, 1999, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006). As a result, teachers needed to update their instructional methods to reflect the new emphasis on deeper understanding as opposed to the old method which emphasized teaching facts (Cohen, McLaughlin & Talbert, 1993; Darling-Hammond & McLaughlin, 1995; Porter & Brophy, 1988, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006). Because professional development was considered an effective way to increase instructors' knowledge and help them develop more sound instructional methods, schools, school districts, and states began focusing on continuing education (Corcoran, 1995; Corcoran, Shields & Zucker, 1998; Sykes, 1996, as cited in (Desimone et al., 2006). With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), the focus on continuing education has continued.

History

The federal government recognized the importance of continuing education and assisted schools with providing continuing education by establishing the Eisenhower Professional Development Program (EPDP) in 1984. This program was reauthorized in 1988 and 1994 as part of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act, as amended by the Improving America's Schools Act of 1994. In 1999, $335 million was appropriated for state and local activities. Colleges, universities, and nonprofit organizations were allocated funds by competitive grants or contracts to provide professional development to instructors and prospective instructors. EPDP originally focused on mathematics and science instructors, but the 1999 reauthorization expanded the program to allow states and school districts to use $250 million to provide professional development to instructors who teach in other main courses, such as reading and English. The 1994 reauthorization clarified that the intention of the act was to support systematic education reform and promote deeper learning among instructors, goals which were designed to ultimately improve student performance in the classroom. The EPDP program supported high-quality professional development activities; the legislation and its guidelines stipulated that the funds should be used to sponsor professional development that was sustained, intensive, ongoing, and grounded in current research on teaching and learning ("The Eisenhower Program," 1999).

With the passage of NCLB, government support of professional development continued, but the EPDP program and the Class Size Reduction program were combined into performance-based grants for states and school districts. The grants are intended to improve academic achievement by providing high-quality, scientifically-based training for instructors. Combining the programs and converting them into grants was meant to provide greater flexibility for effective professional development. States and nearby school districts are allowed to use the grants to meet the needs, strengthen the skills, and improve the knowledge of instructors and school administrators. The combined programs are not only meant to fund professional development, but can also be used to reform teacher certification or licensure requirements, reform tenure and merit-based instructor performance approaches, offer mentoring programs, and provide differential and bonuses for instructors in subject areas or low-income schools and districts with high need (Bush, n.d.).

In 2005, $2.9 billion was allocated by NCLB for schools to provide professional development, reduce class sizes, and adopt other initiatives to improve teacher quality. NCLB decides what qualifies as “high-quality professional development” and mandates that programs be "sustained, intensive, classroom-focused and are not one-day or short-term workshops or conferences" (Viadero, 2005, ¶ 11). NCLB also includes a requirement for a National Education Technology Plan. While the plan is not specific, it does state that instructors must receive training for the effective use of technology. It also recommends that states, school districts, and schools ensure instructor's the opportunity to take online learning courses as well as the improvement of the overall quality of teacher education (Fletcher, 2005).

Applications

Formats

Continuing education programs can be delivered in several different ways. Schools can offer general training opportunities, group instructors according to subject or grade level, or train instructors individually. General training sessions are suitable for situations in which an entire school needs to receive the same information. Grade level or subject groupings, on the other hand, are better for specific training. Participants will find it easier to tailor training material to their unique needs and, if the group is small enough, can help the instructor adapt materials to their learning styles. In designing these types of programs, the people who will be participating in the training should be consulted; their input can help pinpoint an appropriate training subject. Continuing education opportunities can also be developed on an individual basis (Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006). This type of program works best if the training can be completed online, or if the training is in form of a college course.

Qualities of Effective Professional Development

The 1990s began an era of considerable research on professional development, instructor learning, and change (Borko, 2004; Richardson & Placier, 2001, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006). In keeping with the government's requirement of 'high-quality' professional development, this research has helped define the qualities of professional development opportunities that successfully enhance instructors' knowledge and skills, positively change teaching practices, and improve student performance (Desimone et al., 2006).

Research has shown that high-quality professional development programs:

• Have more contact hours;

• Include activities that are sustained over a long period of time rather than over the course of a single training session;

• Group together instructors from the same grade level, subject, or school so that they can participate in the training as a team;

• Provide active learning opportunities for all participants;

• Are aligned with other improvement efforts to avoid confusion and misinterpretation; and

• Focus on subject-matter content instead of over-generalized information (Desimone, Porter, Garet, Suk Yoon & Birman, 2002; Garet, Porter, Desimone, Birman & Yoon, 2001, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006).

Providing sustained, subject-specific professional development is now considered by many to be the most important, effective type of continuing education. Studies have shown that this type of professional development can bring about changes in instructional practice in the classroom (Cohen & Hill, 2000; Desimone, Porter, et al., 2002; Garet et al., 2001, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006), and that participation in this type of activity is related to greater student achievement (Cohen & Hill, 2000; Kennedy, 1998; Wenglinsky, 2000, 2002, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006).

Continuing Education Timetables

Continuing education can be delivered in many different ways. To meet instructors' needs and the confines of a school's schedule, it is sometimes necessary to offer a variety of educational opportunities (Barnett, 2003). This can be done by:

• Offering professional development activities after school. This delivery method is typical for many school districts, but it is also considered one of the least effective ways to deliver educational programming. This is because instructors are usually tired at the end of a day in the classroom, which can diminish concentration and information retention. Therefore, continuing education programs offered after the school day should be limited to raising awareness about a particular subject, introducing concepts that will be covered in greater depth at a different time, or teaching easily understandable concepts or applications.

• Offering short-term training . This type of professional development provides instructors with an hour of individualized training during the school day. Schools bring in a substitute teacher who covers for different instructors throughout the day while they meet with a trainer in a one-on-one setting. Alternatively, for those schools that have built-in preparation time, instructors meet with a trainer during that time. This approach allows instructors to receive information and assistance that directly addresses their own particular needs; they also have the opportunity to ask any questions they may have about a specific subject. This type of professional development activity is well-suited for schools that have implemented a new computer system, student data system, or other technical endeavor. The trainer can observe instructors in their working environment as they use the technology, making it easier for them to detect any particular difficulties or misunderstandings a instructor may have.

• Providing mini grants to instructors. These small monetary grants provide instructors with the incentive to learn something new or explore the possibility of adopting new technologies or practices. This approach can be a well-justified expense for a school or district if, as a condition of the grant, the instructor agrees to teach others what he or she has learned, or serve as a resource for other instructors in the school.

• Offering activities over the summer. Research has shown that instructors are more likely to change their instructional practices when they have the time to reflect on them and implement changes. This approach allows the training to be offered over a number of days or weeks, which can give participants a chance to reflect on training material and return to the training with any questions or concerns they may have. The training environment can also be more relaxed since instructors won't be tired after a day in the classroom, worried about the next day's lessons, or wondering how a substitute teacher is handling their classes.

• Providing distance learning opportunities. Distance education can be an effective alternative to in-person training if it is provided by a company, college, or university that is adept at developing training programs. Schools or school districts may also develop their own distance education opportunities if they have the personnel, time, and resources to do so. Distance education can be a good alternative to other approaches because instructors can participate at a time that suits their individual schedules and needs. Also, a wider array of educational opportunities may be offered, making the approach more cost effective than inviting multiple trainers into a school.

Effective & Ineffective Program Planning

Educators should plan professional development programs carefully to ensure that they are effective and well received. Barnett (2003) recommends that:

• Before deciding what type of programming should be offered, instructors be given the opportunity to describe their training needs. Program designers should be responsive to this input.

• Principals be advocates for professional development by encouraging all instructors to take advantage of the opportunities provided to them, providing incentives for participation and effective implementation, and making sure all instructors realize the school's commitment to providing professional development.

• Instructors be grouped by grade level or subject. This way, they receive individualized training rather than the unspecific, generalized training they would receive in a mixed group.

• All professional development activities be evaluated for efficacy, and schools and school districts be flexible enough to reorganize their programs if they are found to have little efficacy.

• Professional development programs offer hands-on activities so that concepts can be further developed and participants can be fully engaged.

• Training provides real-life applications through classroom examples to help participants understand the presented content and put it into context.

• Professional development opportunities should be fluid to accommodate instructor needs as they arise.

• Participants have adequate access to training materials, such as computers, during the training so that they can practice the skills being taught.

Just as there are ways of making professional development activities more effective, there are also certain behaviors and activities that are not effective. These should be avoided whenever possible (Barnett, 2003):

• Top-down decision making. Since their opinions have not been taken into account, instructors subjected to these types of decisions will be less likely to buy into or want to participate in training

• Not involving the principal in the process and the training. A lack of involvement can lessen the credibility and perceived importance of the professional development activities to the general school population.

• Having little or no planning of the professional development activities. Not planning activities sets a poor precedent and will make it more difficult to generate any interest or enthusiasm for subsequent professional development activities.

• Offering one-hour workshops with no follow up. Short-term, single-sitting sessions do not effectively engage participants or help them retain information.

• Not allowing participant involvement during the sessions. Sessions that are only comprised of a lecture or presentation do not facilitate learning or engage participants.

• Not evaluating programs or asking participants for feedback. Giving participants an opportunity to provide feedback and evaluate the activity can enhance future continuing education opportunities.

Further Insights

Choosing Development Activities

Instructors are generally able to choose their own professional development activities as well as the number of professional development hours in which they participate each year. One study indicated that almost 70% of all instructors in the country selected their own professional development activities (Garet et al., 2001, as cited in Desimone et al., 2006). With this being the case, it is important to determine exactly why instructors choose the activities they do. Schools and school districts need to make sure that instructors are selecting activities that will actually help them transfer the competencies they learn into instructional practices that will improve student achievement, rather than selecting activities that will simply fulfill seat time requirements.

Updated Standards and Training

Since continuing education is required by law and NCLB's adequate yearly progress expectations, schools, school districts, and states have had to help their instructors keep up with technology and classroom standards. Forty-eight states and many school districts now offer incentives for national board certification, and many states have altered their licensure and certification processes to identify different levels of teaching expertise (NCTAF, 2003, as cited in Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006). Colleges and universities throughout the nation have been updating their teaching degrees to better reflect the requirements for today's instructors. Some have even aligned their curriculum to meet the standards of the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium or their state's standards for teacher certification (National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education, n.d., as cited in Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006).

The Financial Investment in Development

Since instructors play such a vital role in student academic achievement, it is important that they receive the professional development they need to succeed in the classroom. As such, professional development is one of the largest monetary investments schools have made. The U.S. Department of Education and state and local programs spend millions of dollars on professional development. Considering the importance of effective instruction, this money is considered well spent if it provides a better understanding of professional development and what constitutes effective delivery of the training (Desimone et al., 2006).

Development and No Child Left Behind

NCLB has made school districts and schools change the way they look at professional development and its delivery (American Federation of Teachers, 2002; Birman et al., 2000; Lewis, 2002; Zimmerman & Jackson, 2003, as cited in Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006). Some school districts have designed their own continuing education opportunities, others are working with local colleges or universities to develop and deliver programs. With the heightened importance of continuing education, many school districts have hired new employees specifically for the purpose of conducting needs assessments and developing programs. However, a large school district that aims to develop continuing education programs for all of its instructors may find it to be a difficult process. Because district personnel are not necessarily in a position to know each school's particular needs, a district that plans only one or two different programs will not be able to meet every school's needs (Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006).

Conclusion

In order to develop appropriate continuing education programs for instructors, several steps should be taken. Before beginning to develop any program, a needs assessment should be completed. A starting point for the assessment can be to check the school's improvement plan to discover any identified needs. Depending on the needs assessment results, different educational opportunities can be offered and instructors can select the training program that best suits their individual needs. After the training has been completed and instructors have had an opportunity to apply their new skills to their classrooms, a follow up should occur to determine whether or not the training was able to produce positive results in the classroom (Lieberman & Wilkins, 2006).

Professional development can be an important component of instructional efficacy. However, even the highest quality training activities can do little good if the activities are not offered at times or in formats that meet instructors' needs, if instructors do not take what they have learned into the classroom, if the schools and school districts do not follow with evaluation, or if the training effort is not sustained.

Terms & Concepts

Class Size Reduction Program: A government initiative approved in 1998 to provide funds to states and local school districts for the purpose of hiring more instructors to decrease elementary school class sizes to no more than 18 students.

Eisenhower Professional Development Program (EPDP): A federal program established in 1984 to provide grant funds to colleges, universities, and non-profits for helping teachers and other educational staff gain access to professional development in main academic subjects.

Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) of 1965: An expansive federal education bill that was passed as part of President Lyndon B. Johnson's "War on Poverty." The act was grounded in the belief that equal access to education was absolutely necessary to a child's capability to live a challenging and productive life.

Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium: An association of state and national education organizations that are dedicated to preparing, licensing, and professionally developing instructors to better equip them for teaching.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB): The latest reauthorization and a major overhaul of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the major federal law regarding K-12 education.

Professional Development: The training professionals receive to stay up to date on the changing technologies and practices in their fields.

Standards-Based Reform: The practice of setting clear, measurable academic standards for students' knowledge and abilities. Instead of using norm-referenced rankings, the performance of all students is expected to rise to the standards set by each state.

Bibliography

Barnett, H. (2003). Technology professional development: Successful strategies for teacher change . Washington, D.C.: Institute of Education Sciences. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED477616). Retrieved September 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/25/aa.pdf

Bush, G. (n.d.). Foreword by President George W. Bush. Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://www.whitehouse.gov/news/reports/no-child-left-behind.html

Desimone, L., Smith, T. & Ueno, K. (2006). Are teachers who need sustained, content focused professional development getting it? An administrator's dilemma. Educational Administration Quarterly, 42 , 179-214. Retrieved September 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=22505765&site=ehost-live

The Eisenhower Program and the goals of the 1994 reauthorization (1999). Designing Effective Development: Lessons from the Eisenhower Program . Retrieved September 28, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/inits/teachers/eisenhower/chap1c.html

Fletcher, G. (2005). Why aren't dollars following need? T H E Journal, 32 , 4. Retrieved September 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=17402649&site=ehost-live

Lieberman, J. & Wilkins, E. (2006). The professional development pathways model: From policy to practice. Kappa Delta Pi Record, 42 , 124-128. Retrieved September 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20356521&site=ehost-live

Smith, D. H. (2013). Adult continuing education and human resource development: Present competitors, potential partners. New Horizons in Adult Education & Human Resource Development, 25, 29-36. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91255219&site=ehost-live

Viadero, D. (2005). Pressure builds for effective staff training. Education Week, 24 , 1. Retrieved September 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=17940150&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Adey, P. (2004). The Professional Development of Teachers: Practice and Theory. New York, NY: Springer.

Dede, C. (2006). Online Professional Development for Teachers: Emerging Models and Methods. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Education Press.

Sweeney, D. (2003). Learning Along the way: Professional Development by and for Teachers. Portland, ME: Stenhouse Publishers.

Tallerico, M. (2005). Supporting and Sustaining Teacher's Professional Development: A Principal's Guide. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.