Contract Learning

This article discusses two different versions of contract learning used by teachers to foster independent decision making and individual responsibility for learning. Discussion focuses on the basics of traditional learning contracts and the reasons teachers use such contracts to meet curriculum objectives. The article further explores differentiation of learning contracts, assessment of student work, and general student reactions to learning via the contract method. The focus then switches to the use of behavior contracts to address problem behaviors and to reinforce desired behaviors. Practical suggestions are provided for implementing behavior contracts in the classroom.

Keywords Anchor Activity; Behavior Contract; Exemplar; Learning Contract; Learning Profile; Negotiable Contract; Non-Negotiable Contract; Readiness; Rubrics

Teaching Methods > Contract Learning

Overview

Learning Contract & Contract Learning

A learning contract is a negotiated agreement between a teacher and a student to work on a given task independently or cooperatively that is related to specific curriculum objectives. Learning contracts often provide for student choice and allow students to determine appropriate means to demonstrate knowledge. Thus, contract learning provides for a balance between teacher direction and student initiative (Greenwood, 2002). When developing contracts, teachers determine what is important for students to know, understand and be able to do. Specific options are articulated for students to choose from in order to demonstrate their understanding. Alternatively, sometimes teachers leave the decision entirely up to students to determine how they feel most comfortable demonstrating their knowledge.

Knowles (1986) discusses the application of learning contracts in educational settings geared toward adults. Learning contracts are used with adults primarily because they require individual responsibility and initiative. However, Greenwood (2002) asserts that many teachers find learning contracts most useful when working with young students from elementary through high school. Learning contracts provide students with the opportunity and freedom to acquire skills and understandings that are deemed important by the teacher, on their own (Tomlinson, 1999).

Tomlinson (2003) further illuminates that learning contracts create optimal conditions for teachers to effectively manage time in the classroom because contracts work well as anchor activities (meaningful and purposeful activities that engage students while the teacher works with other students). Teachers often struggle with how to effectively balance small group, large group and individualized instruction. Greenwood (2002) asserts that when using contracts, teachers can group and regroup students for individual and small group instruction with ease without having to manage the entire class.

Once clearly outlined and agreed upon by both the teacher and student, a learning contract often keeps students engaged in meaningful work while teachers have an opportunity to meet with students who might need extra assistance or challenge. Since learning contracts are often based on individual or partner work, they lend themselves easily to minimal teacher direction while students work on completing the assigned tasks. According to Tomlinson (2003), once students start working on their contracts, teachers observe, provide feedback and coach students when necessary to help them achieve optimal results. However, most of the process involves individual work without ongoing teacher direction.

Reasons for Using Learning Contracts

Teachers use learning contracts for a variety of reasons because they provide an appropriate balance between student centeredness and teacher direction. One compelling reason that teachers use learning contracts concerns the need for a strong balance between small group, large group and individualized instruction. Greenwood (2002) indicates that often it is very difficult for teachers to find the time necessary to meet with a small group of students while the rest of the class works productively on a meaningful task related to the curriculum. Learning contracts provide the perfect opportunity for teachers to keep students engaged in purposeful work while they meet with specific groups of students who may need extra attention or simply check in with students regarding individual progress.

A second compelling reason concerns the diverse student population teachers are expected to work with to reach academic objectives. Students differ with regard to how they learn, what they are interested in learning about, how quickly they are able to acquire skills, etc. Learning contracts greatly contribute to the variety of approaches teachers can choose from to meet the needs of their students (Kilgore et al., 2002). They allow teachers to reach a diverse group of learners as they provide a variety of different choices designed to appeal to different interests and learning profiles.

A third reason concerns the level of independence and individual responsibility for learning that contracts encourage as students work independently to achieve specific learning outcomes. Greenwood (2002) highlights the fact that learning contracts provide a strong balance between independent and cooperative work as well as a learning environment that helps students develop the related skill sets for each learning goal (Sutton, Ezell & Sankar, 2013). Furthermore, contracts motivate students to take the initiative to direct their own learning and to choose their own paths to reach specific learning objectives.

Finally, learning contracts are a viable alternative to searching for something meaningful for students to work on as they wait for other students to finish given assignments or tasks. In a classroom, students rarely finish their work at the same time and often some students find that they have nothing to do while they wait for others to finish their work. Learning contracts significantly cut down on the waste of large amounts of time as students can work on their contract while they wait thus keeping them engaged and connected to the learning process (Greenwood, 2002).

Differentiating Learning Contracts

Learning contracts are often used as a means to differentiate curriculum and instruction because they provide an appropriate balance between student choice and teacher direction. Contracts can be designed with multiple learning objectives and given to different groups of students within one classroom to appropriately challenge students at levels commensurate with their abilities. Often, teachers develop two or three different versions of a learning contract focused on the same learning objective, but different with regard to level of difficulty and expectations (Tomlinson, 1999).

Teachers can differentiate learning contracts by altering content, process or product. Content refers to the actual material studied (i.e. addition and subtraction, classic literature, the American Revolution, etc.). Process refers to the steps the student takes to complete the actual assignment or task. Product refers to the actual form of the final assignment. Examples of different products include essays, skits, musical performances, 3-D models, etc. Teachers differentiate each of these components according to readiness levels, learning profiles and interest. Readiness level simply refers to whether or not a student is ready to learn a particular concept. Learning profile refers to how a student learns best (i.e. while listening to music, working alone, working with others, etc.) and interest refers to what a student is interested in learning about (Tomlinson, 1999).

For example, when developing a learning contract regarding literature from a specific genre, a teacher may differentiate the content of the contract by choosing two or three different books ranging in difficulty for students to analyze. A teacher may differentiate the process for completing the contract by varying the instructions in two or three different versions of the same contract. Alternatively, a teacher may differentiate the product required by providing a list of possible final products and allowing students to choose which one works best for their objective.

Moreover, contracts can be differentiated according to interest by providing multiple options and allowing students to choose which one most appeals to them. They can also be differentiated according to learning profile as students can make decisions about where, how and when to work on completing the contract. Learning contracts lend themselves easily to differentiation as there are multiple ways in which contracts can be modified to meet the learning needs of different students (Tomlinson, 1999).

Student Reactions to Learning Contracts

Williams & Williams (1999) conducted a study focused on the use of learning contracts at the college level, specifically in technology courses. Their findings illuminate student feedback regarding the use of learning contracts and the effects of contracts on student learning. Although the study was conducted with college students, the findings speak generally to the benefits of learning contracts at all education levels.

At the conclusion of a course designed specifically around learning contracts, students commented positively regarding the flexibility that contracts provided to the learning process. They appreciated the level of student control that contracts afforded and felt more motivated because they were able to develop their own path toward learning (Williams & Williams, 1999). Moreover, students commented on the fact that learning contracts met their learning needs and encouraged them to explore new curricular areas. Students further articulated the fact that learning contracts provide opportunities for them to reflect on their own learning experience and directly participate in the assessment of their achievements (Williams & Williams, 1999). Overall, students communicated that learning contracts provide an opportunity for individualized instruction that cannot be achieved when teachers direct instruction entirely. When students are afforded the opportunity to develop and guide their own learning, to a degree, they are often more motivated and invested in the learning process.

Greenwood (2002) further sheds some light on student reactions to learning contracts at earlier grade levels with a specific focus on reading. He asserts that students become more motivated and engaged in reading when they are provided with a proper balance between student choice, guidance and teacher encouragement. When learning contracts include an opportunity for student choice, teachers often find that students are more enthusiastic about and engaged in the learning process.

Applications

Developing & Using Learning Contracts in the Classroom

When developing a learning contract, the teacher must be responsible for determining what is important and necessary to learn (Tomlinson, 1999). Although a majority of the work is completed independently with little teacher intervention, the teacher has the final say with regard to what curriculum objectives the contract meets. Both the teacher and student can negotiate and arrive at a consensus regarding specific working conditions under which the student will apply skills in context. Tomlinson (1999) further asserts that teachers need to clearly identify positive reinforcements when students adhere to outlined working conditions and must clearly establish criteria for successful completion of contract work. As a final requirement for the development of a learning contract, Tomlinson (1999) suggests that all contracts between teachers and students include signatures on behalf of both individuals indicating agreement to the conditions set forth in the contract.

Greenwood (2002) suggests that teachers who have never used learning contracts before start slowly and work with non-negotiable contracts at first. Non-negotiable contracts are completely designed and written by the teacher. The teacher decides what the different options will be and there is no opportunity for students to alter or modify requirements. Once the teacher feels comfortable using learning contracts as part of the curriculum, he/she may decide to move toward using negotiable contracts more often.

With regard to working conditions, Greenwood (2002) asserts that teachers must explicitly teach the procedures and social skills necessary to work individually on a learning contract. Students need to know acceptable behavior while working on a contract and the specific consequences they will face should they not adhere to the working conditions outlined in the contract. Furthermore, he claims that the teacher needs to arrange the classroom in such a way that supports the use of learning contracts and individual work.

As a final recommendation for implementing learning contracts in the classroom, Greenwood (2002) recommends that teachers give ongoing feedback throughout the process and that sometimes they even encourage and require peer feedback. Moreover, he suggests that teachers involve students in self-assessment and require them to reflect on their own learning throughout the learning contract process.

Assessing Learning Contracts

Cline & Schwartz (1999) discuss the use of rubrics as a form of assessment. Rubrics are especially helpful when using learning contracts as they clearly outline the expectations for high quality work and give students specific objectives to aim for as they work on completing their final product. Rubrics clearly articulate evaluation criteria and give students an opportunity to understand how they will be graded before they commence work on a contract. Greenwood (2002) supports the use of rubrics as a way to assess learning contracts, but further claims that exemplars -- examples of the desired product -- are even more beneficial for students to understand what high quality work looks like and what results they need to achieve. When exemplars accompany specific grades and score points on a rubric, the assessment becomes even more useful to students as they can see exactly what type of work matches the highest evaluation criteria (Greenwood, 2002).

Some educators believe, however, that the excessive use of exemplars can run the risk of over-imitation or lack of creativity and originality (Greenwood, 2002). Alternatively, other educators believe that exemplars encourage students to be more creative and to aim for the highest quality work. Whenever exemplars are attached to rubrics to provide insight into what high quality work looks like, teachers must emphasize to students that they need to produce their own original work.

Behavior Contracts

Behavior contracts are used by teachers for a variety of reasons ranging from introducing new behaviors to decreasing or eliminating undesirable behaviors. Anderson (2002) discusses the variety of reasons for the use of behavior contracts in classrooms. Such contracts are used primarily as a way to reinforce or eliminate specific behaviors. However, they may also be employed as a means to maintain and support the application of specific skills, monitor completion of academic tasks and document the results of problem-solving sessions (Anderson, 2002).

For example, at a basic level, if a teacher recognizes that a young child is experiencing difficulty raising his or her hand to speak and talking out of turn when a teacher is presenting information, the teacher may develop a behavior contract with specific criteria targeted to help the child successfully eliminate the undesirable behaviors. Alternatively, if a teacher wants to encourage a child to turn in homework each morning or complete class assignments efficiently without distraction, the teacher may develop a contract that praises the student for successfully implementing the desired behaviors into his or her everyday routines. Behavior contracts can also be valuable when they build a link between school and home (Hawkins et al., 2011). Behavior contracts explicitly articulate specific action steps that a student must take in order to successfully meet a teacher's expectation with regard to behavior. Often, behavior contracts include an evaluation component (i.e. rating scale from 1-3, happy and sad faces, etc.) to help students gauge success.

Anderson (2002) indicates that sometimes teachers use behavior contracts regularly as a way to flexibly manage a highly individualized educational program. In such cases, teachers may develop different behavior contracts for different students in the classroom, thus holding each child accountable to expectations specifically designed for him or her. Some teachers choose to use behaviors contracts on an as-needed basis and only when specific behavior interventions are necessary to help eliminate undesirable behaviors (Anderson, 2002). If a teacher uses a behavior contract to specifically help one or two students in a classroom, the teacher must address issues of confidentiality and ensure that the students are not singled out or made to feel different because of the contract.

When developing a behavior contract, it is often recommended that teachers directly involve students in the planning of the contract and in the identification of the behaviors that need to be addressed. By including students in this process, teachers ensure that students are able to self-identify and develop a heightened awareness of behaviors that need to be changed or reinforced. Anderson (2002) highlights that when teachers include students in the planning process, it strengthens student understanding of cause and effect and increases the sense of ownership that the student feels for achieving a successful result.

Developing a Behavior Contract

When developing a behavior contract, the teacher must first identify the specific behavior that needs to be addressed. For example, is a student not turning in homework regularly, speaking out of turn, not following class rules, or not playing fairly at recess by including all students in an activity or game? These are all examples of behaviors that a contract may be used to help eliminate. Anderson (2002) indicates that if a teacher identifies more than one behavior that a student needs to address, the teacher should choose the one behavior that he or she feels the student will be most successful at eliminating or reinforcing. When students experience success, they are likely to recognize the benefit of such a contract and be more willing to participate in implementing future contracts should they be necessary.

Teachers often struggle with determining when it is appropriate to suggest the use of a behavior contract to help eliminate or reinforce specific behaviors. Anderson (2002) suggests that teachers analyze the circumstances under which certain behaviors exist and then determine the events that usually trigger such behavior. Anderson (2002) further recommends that teachers collect data about the circumstances under which the targeted behaviors exist. For example, teachers can maintain ongoing records including informal observations, information from grade books, data sheets, homework assignment notebooks, frequency charts, etc. Once a teacher has collected enough objective data indicating the frequent or infrequent occurrence of a particular behavior, he or she can determine whether or not a behavior contract is necessary to help address the identified issues.

If it is determined that a behavior contract is an appropriate tool for addressing a targeted behavior, the teacher must determine the logistics regarding how the contract will actually work and how the student will be held accountable to the identified expectations. First and foremost, the teacher must develop the specific objectives that the student must meet in order to be successful. Anderson (2002) highlights the fact that behavioral objectives should be as specific, observable and measurable as possible. The teacher must ensure that he or she is able to collect data regarding the behavior and that the student is aware of how the information will be collected. For example, to help a student having difficulty focusing on his or her work for a period of time a teacher may develop a behavioral objective that explicitly states the student will work independently for ten minutes without interrupting other students or leaving his or her work station. The behavioral objective used in the example is specific and measurable. The student knows exactly what behavior he or she will be assessed on and how long he or she must work in order to meet the identified expectation.

Conclusion

In addition to determining the specific behavioral or academic objectives that a student must meet in order to be successful, the teacher must also determine what will happen should the student be unsuccessful in meeting the expectations. Moreover, the teacher must determine how he or she will praise a student should he or she meet the expectation as outlined in the contract. Anderson (2002) indicates that teachers may use varying forms of praise depending on the age level of the student population. Younger students may require more frequent check-ins and reinforcements in the beginning stages of contract implementation to ensure they feel successful.

Two final considerations that teachers must take into account when developing behavior contracts involve who will be directly involved in holding the student accountable and how long the contract will be used to address the specific behaviors (Anderson, 2002). Contracts should be signed by both the student and the teacher. However, the teacher may decide to directly involve the student's parents or a school administrator such as the Assistant Principal to help reinforce the significance of the contract. With regard to evaluation time, the teacher should provide a concrete timeline for implementation and expected amount of time for the student to successfully reach the identified goals. When the student meets the expectations outlined on the contract, the teacher should set aside time to celebrate the accomplishment and then redirect the student to start the process again, if necessary, to meet the next behavioral objective (Anderson, 2002).

Terms & Concepts

Anchor Activity: Anchor activities are meaningful and purposeful activities that engage students while the teacher works with other students.

Behavior Contract: Behavior contracts are used by teachers for a variety of reasons ranging from introducing new behaviors to decreasing or eliminating undesirable behaviors.

Exemplars: Exemplars are examples of real students’ work, generally of different qualities (Scoles, Huxham & McArthur, 2013). Exemplars are beneficial for students to understand what high quality work looks like and what results they need to achieve.

Learning Contract: A learning contract is a negotiated agreement between a teacher and a student to work on a given task independently or cooperatively that is related to specific curriculum objectives. Learning contracts often provide for student choice and allow students to determine appropriate means to demonstrate knowledge.

Learning Profile: A students learning profile is a preferred way of learning that may be influenced by learning style, intelligence preference, gender and culture.

Negotiable Contract: A negotiable contract is designed by both the teacher and the student. Student input is considered as working conditions, final products and objectives are determined.

Non-Negotiable Contract: Non-negotiable contracts are completely designed and writ-ten by the teacher. The teacher decides what the different options will be and there is no opportunity for students to alter or modify requirements.

Readiness: Readiness refers to a student's entry point relative to a particular under-standing or skill. In any given classroom, there always exists a range of different readiness levels.

Rubrics: Rubrics clearly outline the expectations for high quality work and give students specific objectives to aim for as they work on completing their final product. They clearly articulate evaluation criteria and give students an opportunity to understand how they will be graded before they commence work on a contract.

Bibliography

Anderson, J. (2002). Individualized Behavior Contracts. Intervention in School & Clinic, 37 , 168-172. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5890747&site=ehost-live

Cline, S. & Schwartz, D. (1999). Diverse populations of gifted children. Columbus, OH: Merrill.

Greenwood, C. (2002). Contracting revisited: Lessons learned in literacy differentiation. Journal of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 46 , 338 -350. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=7896253&site=ehost-live

Hawkins, E., Kingsdorf, S., Charnock, J., Szabo, M., Middleton, E., Phillips, J., & Gautreaux, G. (2011). Using behaviour contracts to decrease antisocial behaviour in four boys with an autistic spectrum disorder at home and at school. British Journal of Special Education, 38, 201-208. Retrieved December 11, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=69972208&site=ehost-live

Kilgore, K., Grifin, C., Sindelar, P., & Webb, R. (2002). Restructuring for inclusion: Changing teaching practices. Middle School Journal, 33 , 7-13.

Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21484885&site=ehost-live

Knowles, M. S. (1986). Using learning contracts: Approaches to individualizing and structuring learning. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Scoles, J., Huxham, M., & McArthur, J. (2013). No longer exempt from good practice: Using exemplars to close the feedback gap for exams. Assessment & Evaluation in Higher Education, 38, 631-645. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88260753&site=ehost-live

Sutton, K., Ezell, J., & Sankar, C. S. (2013). Diagnosing student learning outcomes using the organizational learning contract framework. International Journal of Information & Communication Technology Education, 9, 12-25. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87753794&site=ehost-live

Tomlinson, C. (1999). The differentiated classroom: Responding to the needs of all learners. Alexandria, VA: Association of Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C., & Eidson, C. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating curriculum grades K-5. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Williams, A., & Williams, J. (1999). The effects of the use of learning contracts on student performance in technology. Research in Science & Technological Education, 17 , 193-201. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=2618047&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Anderson, G., Boud, D. & Sampson, J. (1996). Learning contracts: A practical guide. London: Kogan Page.

Greenwood, S. C. (1985). Use of contracts to motivate and manage your secondary reading class. Journal of Reading, 28 , 487-491.

Laycock, M. & Stephenson, J. (1994). Using learning contracts in higher education. London: Kogan Page.

Lemieux, C. (2001). Learning contracts in the classroom: Tools for empowerment and accountability. Social Work Education, 20 , 263-76. Retrieved June 26, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4318505&site=ehost-live

Tomlinson, C. & Eidson, C. (2003). Differentiation in practice: A resource guide for differentiating curriculum grades 5-9. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Tomlinson, C. (2003). Fulfilling the promise of the differentiated classroom: Strategies and tools for responsive teaching. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.