Counseling Methods

This article presents an overview of guidance counseling in U.S. public schools, and the common methods used in school counseling. Guidance counseling has grown over the last 90 years due to a variety of social changes that have affected youth in their social, personal, and educational development. The emergence of the vocational guidance movement in the early 20th century furthered the development of counseling in education. The National Defense Act of 1958 provided funding for counselor training, which led to over 30,000 high school counselors integrated into U.S. public schools. In addition the emergence of counseling theories and approaches including Person Centered, Reality, Behavioral Interventions, and Family therapies provided educators and counselors with a range of competencies and skills to use with student guidance. Today, presenting social problems have created additional efforts by schools to provide a range of interventions and programs. These include Individual, Group, Multicultural, and animal-facilitated counseling approaches. Some programs include mentoring, transition, conflict resolution, peer counseling, drug prevention, and career exploration and development. School counseling programs also are integral in providing and executing consultations with other individuals and staff such as parents, teachers, psychologists, and social workers to assist students in their development.

Keywords Family Counseling; Group Counseling; Guidance Counseling; Individual Counseling; Mentoring; Multicultural Counseling; Play therapy; Transition Programs; Vocational Guidance Movement

Guidance and Counseling > Counseling Methods

Overview

Guidance counseling can be defined as assisting children and youth with programs and interventions that help them with changes in their lives. While guidance and counseling can take place in a variety of settings, public schools serve as one of the largest organized entities to provide these services. When utilized, school counseling can be a significant contributor to a child's formative development and provide access to information about effectively dealing with life issues. The methods, programs, and interventions are primarily provided by school counselors who work with other staff in a collaborative manner to help support the educational and social objectives of the local school. The primary focus areas for school counseling can include the areas of personal, social, and academic growth and development. Counselors work with a range of individuals such as teachers, administrators, psychologists, parents and social workers.

During the 1950's and 1960's, individual counseling approaches gained recognition. William Glasser, the founder of reality therapy, encouraged the early use of group counseling approaches to mediate issues with students and to work with teachers in the classroom. He encouraged teachers to "talk to children and to entertain dialogue so counseling becomes possible" (Glasser,1969, p. 86).

For public schools The National Defense Act of 1958 provided money to state and local systems as an impetus for the development of guidance counseling roles and staff development training for counselors (Gibson, 1990). School Counseling approaches broadened during the 1970's, when multicultural counseling and tolerance were topics with which counselors worked with students. Family counseling approaches gained momentum with the increases in the divorce rates during this same time period. During the 1980's and 90's, social issues continued to affect guidance counselor's roles and approaches to counseling in schools. Currently the school counseling realm is in the midst of a federal agenda of increased accountability and testing through the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB) of 2001. Further drug prevention programs, school violence incidents, issues related to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), and increased pressures for effective transition from school to work also are pressing issues in schools.

Today, students sometimes need guidance to develop coping skills to deal with a variety of social issues and challenges in an age of technology and globalization. The 21st century is also notably identified with more access to self-help literature through the internet and other print resources for students within the public school system. For many students, counseling and programmatic interventions can be significant resources to help them through issues as they develop. The counseling approaches and strategies public school counselors use vary from elementary, middle/Jr high, and high school levels in relation to presenting problems and issues that arise due to personal, social, or developmental issues of the student or students. Many of the counseling approaches are integrated in curricular or topic specific programs.

Applications

Elementary School Presenting Issues & Counseling Approaches

Elementary school is a time for children to learn about themselves and the world around them. Working well with others and cooperation skills are just two of the areas of development that teachers and counselors try to foster and develop. Counselors can facilitate these pro-social behaviors through individual and group counseling approaches within and out of the classroom. Glasser (1969) noted in his early work that it is critical to apply teaching and educational interventions during the first five years within the elementary school classroom to help students succeed and develop a positive self identity. Individual counseling can be helpful to to elementary students, but it is typically conducted in coordination with parents due to minor consent laws.

An emerging role for the school counselor is that of consultant to teacher, parents, and school administrators, according to Hall & Lin (1994). School counseling departments often provide consultation services to effectively mediate presenting issues with parents, teachers, and psychologists. Consultations help to develop a plan of action to assist the student with an issue or problem. Increases of national attention to issues of war, terrorism, hurricanes, and other natural disasters have required school counseling programs and staff to support students through such traumatic events.

Group counseling approaches may also be used by a counselor in a public school environment. Group approaches have been used for anger and stress management in elementary school settings. Group work is helpful in approaching student/family issues such as divorce or traumatic events (such as the loss of a classmate) or environmental stressors within the context of the school community. Schmidt, Lanier, & Cope (1999) noted group guidance and group counseling as two areas of emphasis in school counseling programs over the last twenty years.

The coordination of Special education services for children with disabilities is another key role for elementary school counselors. Counselors help develop Individual Education Plans (IEP's) and often provide training to teachers, psychologists, social workers, and parents to work with the child's individual disability and needs. Parents are integral to the process in guiding and supporting their child's needs at home. Helms & Katsiyannis (1992) recognized that a "team approach be used in order for a counseling program to be successful" (p. 236).

Each developmental stage of a child's growth requires different interventions or counseling approaches. School counselors at the elementary level are tasked with "establish[ing] comprehensive developmental programs...to help students develop life skills to become contributing members of society" (Scarborough, 1997, p. 29).

Elementary teachers and counselors have always played a large part in providing students with opportunities to explore careers and the many roles that are played by individuals in their community through Career Day events. According to Hoffman & McDaniels (1991), elementary school counseling career programs should be "tailored" to help children acquire skills to foster "self understanding and the acquisition of knowledge and skills for helping children experience success" (p. 165).

Family counseling has also played a role in the elementary school counseling programs. Advocates of family counseling, see interventions with family "producing rapid change in problematic behavior" according to Goodman & Kjonass, (1984, p. 255).

Another type of approach primarily used in elementary settings is animal-facilitated counseling. Children tend to have a natural inclination for animals. In the literature it is recognized that the presence of an animal can foster a feeling of warmth and companionship and when coupled with individual or group counseling techniques can lead to more productive conversation and sharing by students (Trivedi & Perl, 1995).

Play therapy has been used with children experiencing post-traumatic stress. With the rising identification of Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) many school counseling programs assist with behavioral interventions or strategies. Behavioral approaches that use "positive praise, positive internal self talk, behavioral rehearsal, cost response, earning special privileges, and mentoring can help mediate some of the problematic behaviors in children with ADHD" (Erk, 2003, p. 436). In addition, utilizing self esteem training and social skills education are also some approaches school counseling programs may use with these students.

Incidents and early identification in elementary school of childhood autism have also presented a challenge to counselors who may play a role in accessing services and programs for parents along with psychologists, special education teachers, and social workers. Counselors assist in the coordination efforts to help with interventions that assist these students in their social skill development

Middle School Presenting Issues & Counseling Approaches

Students entering middle school are challenged by a transitional stage in which they are experiencing many developmental and physiological changes. Often students are attending new schools with new friends and environments into which they must assimilate. According to Akos (2005), middle school counselors should work with elementary counselors to prepare students for their transition to "connect and engage" students. Counselors working in middle schools often provide and develop Transition programs which help students to prepare for these changes.

One negative phenomenon that can occur during middle school is bullying. The research literature on bullying recognizes that the trend of this behavior tends to peak in middle school years when students are most influenced by fitting in with a group and struggling with self identity (Olweus, 1993). With access to technology such as cell phones and the internet, technological communication has broadened the scope of the bully to harass victims. School counseling programs can provide students with activities that will help to develop a safe school environment. Guidance counselors have organized comprehensive peer counseling, character education curriculum, Conflict Resolution, and mentoring to help students deal with this growing problem. According to Brown (2005) peer counseling and support teaches listening to others to understand their stories.

Multicultural counseling is another method that relates well to building tolerance towards others. It is recognized that early adolescence can be an advantageous and influential time for counselors to provide interventions and learning opportunities which focus and place value and respect on a variety of worldviews and cultures. According to Baruth & Manning (2000), multicultural counseling can "foster close friendships" and develop student's "justice and fairness" (p. 246).

Sink (2005) cited school counseling activities in middle school focusing on achievement motivation, self-efficacy, and social problem solving. In a report by the Institute on Education and the Economy, academic counseling at the middle school improves school outcomes and more research and funding should be based on aspect of guidance and counseling to help students in these grade levels (Hughes & Karp, 2004).

Drug Prevention Counseling is yet another aspect that a school counseling program coordinates with local law enforcement. Experts work with school staff to support and teach preventative skills in helping students make effective choices in this area.

Career Development programs can be a dynamic way for teachers to work with school counselors and students. Developmentally, in middle school, students start to make choices regarding which classes and areas of extracurricular study they should pursue. Students begin to identify coursework and think about career options in their future. According to Hughey & Akos (2005), middle school counseling programs can facilitate "early adolescent's educational and career decision making" (p. 93).

High School Presenting Issues & Counseling Approaches

Economic conditions which necessitate dual family incomes have persisted such that many students with working parents come home to empty homes after school. During the 1980's this phenomenon was largely known as the "latch key" children. Mentoring programs have provided one outlet for students by providing an after school connection with an adult who can provide support and act as a resource for them. High School counselors can be a critical link to providing information and resources on mentoring programs within their school or community that reach out to students.

The teenage years can be turbulent ones, in which adolescents find themselves in a development stage of not being children, yet not being adults. Relationship exploration, friendships, stress of life and school can be overwhelming for some students who lack coping skills to deal with these issues. Suicide Prevention is one topic that counselors promote in public schools. Counselors are responsible for training staff on early identification, program planning to teach students about awareness and seeking help, as well as crisis response to this serious issue.

In tandem with crisis intervention programs are often embedded discussions of violence prevention. With increased media focus on incidents in of public school violence the U.S., school counseling programs have developed to include mediation and staff development to identify potential signs of students acting out. According to Leseho (1999), cognitive behavioral approaches have mainly been used in these types of school counseling prevention programs.

The high school years also bring more focus on preparation and readiness of students to implement Career Development skills. Group career planning and testing is implemented with students in relation to a Career Week or Career Day activity organized by counselors. Herr, Crammer, & Niles (2004) note that many schools "include structured classes, group and individual counseling, topical workshops, computer-assisted programs...and assessment" (p. 393). Test preparation courses and programs are largely organized by counselors at public schools with individual guidance counseling provided to students on applications, scholarships, and financial aid.

Further Insights

WWI & WWII Testing

In 1919, psychologists worked to develop the army alpha and beta tests to identify military recruits' intelligence and projected capacity for service and leadership roles. This led to heightened examination of individual differences and planning for the educational and occupational future of students ("History of Career and Vocational Guidance" 2000). Ultimately, this led way to a national Vocational Guidance Movement including the establishment of professional organizations to support guidance counselors in their development.

Vocational Guidance Movement

The Vocational Guidance Movement fostered the growth of counseling in the early 20th century. Frank Parsons was noted as the Father of the Vocational Guidance Movement. He established The National Bureau of Boston in 1908 and published Choosing a Vocation in 1909, which furthered the cause and growth of guidance and counseling ("History of Career and Vocational Guidance," 2000). The role of the National Bureau was to assist individuals (specifically youth and adults) with occupational adjustment. This paved the way for larger interest in education's role and the programs that could help student development.

The National Defense Act of 1958

With this national legislation came the training of over 30,000 guidance counselors (Gysbers & Jensen, 1999). Guidance counseling in public schools brought an increased public awareness. Schools were tasked with providing programs and services to support children and youth's development throughout the U.S. A White paper on the Guidance and Counseling in the 21st Century by the Consortium for State Guidance Supervisors called for a renewed Leadership Academy to replenish a national interest and movement in Guidance Counseling in Public Schools. This document recognizes that many individuals who were trained in these programs during this time period through 1964 are retiring or have gained emeritus status at major universities (Gysbers & Jensen, 1999).

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB)

With the implementation of the No Child Left Behind Act (NCLB), school districts have largely focused on aspects of testing, assessment, and accountability. This shift to student outcomes has necessitated local education agencies and school districts to implement testing and assessment programs to support and comply with legislative mandates of accountability. While some districts vary in their choice of staff to implement testing, many of these roles are given to counselors, who have abilities in the area of measurement and evaluation. School counseling programs have notably been stretching their capacities to provide individual and group counseling, prevention programs, and other initiatives in addition to testing.

School Choice

One of the initiatives in the School reform movement in public schools in many states is in the areas of vouchers and school choice. Downing & D'Andrea (1996) see that the school reform effort in the United States "has failed to address motivating 80% of children" (p. 116). School counseling programs typically work with parents as points of contact for their child's movement and options within a school district or program. In some districts awareness of these programs is provided by school counselors who inform parents of these opportunities. Many of these programs focus on helping low performing or at-risk students succeed. School counseling programs are one area of the school choice initiatives that can help students succeed. Some programs offer Summer programs which integrate guidance and counseling in the curriculum for these student's continued development.

Safe Schools

School safety issues have been brought to the forefront with incidents of school violence in recent years. In light of recent tragic events, the public school system at large has been forced to confront the roles of individuals within schools and their responsibility in creating a healthy and safe climate in which to grow. School counselors have contributed to the development of programs to support initiatives such as peer mediation, peer counseling, and anger management training. According to Keys (2000), school counselors "need to embrace collaboration with other professionals" (p. 4) and begin to redefine their roles in developing school based prevention programs in this arena. The efficacy of these programs remains to be seen in their ability to deter school violence. However, school counseling programs and counselors remain the focus as experts within the system work to support this very important issue.

Curriculum & Culture

With increased diversity of the student population and immigration in the U.S., one area of discussion is the concept of culturally responsive curriculum in public schools (Abdal-Haqq, 1994). This type of curriculum serves to validate diverse student populations' variety of backgrounds and cultural attributes in positive and affirming ways. School counseling can support this type of curriculum in providing group counseling and programs that reinforce a culture of tolerance, respect, and opportunity for students to learn from one another. This is a relatively new concept (since the early 1990's) that some districts have addressed. There are opportunities for linkages to the school counseling programs in terms of infusion of this concept.

Terms & Concepts

Animal-Facilitated Counseling: The integration of a trained animal, commonly a dog, during individual or group counseling to foster aspects of companionship and safety. Most commonly used at the elementary school level in guidance and counseling programs.

Behavioral Interventions: Counselors focus on modifying behaviors of students through techniques which reinforce or establish more effective ways of responding and behaving.

Bullying: The use of physical or psychological acts of intimidation in peer interaction repeatedly in a relationship where there is a notable imbalance of power or resources for the victim to effectively provide a defense.

Career Development: Psychological, sociological, educational, physical, economic and chance factors that shape a career of an individual during the lifespan.

Conflict Resolution: Programmatic interventions which help students to effectively mediate problems and conflicts with their peers with appropriate and positive behaviors.

Consultation: A counselor can provide consultation on a student issue with parents, teachers, or administration to work on a strategy for resolution.

Drug Prevention Counseling: Providing information to students on making responsible choices when faced with alcohol/drugs in their environment.

Individual counseling: Counselors work with students on an individual basis to mediate normal developmental problems, concerns, and issues in their lives.

Family counseling: An approach counselors use to offer systemic at-home support to mediate presenting issues in a child in order to gain support through family reinforcement and inclusion.

Group counseling: A means by which students can explore common concerns and issues or learn new coping skills in a peer setting.

Mentoring: An adult role model provides support to a child or youth helping them to mediate concerns and issues of normal development or participate in a mutually interesting activity.

Multicultural Counseling: Counselors link students' cultures and experiences into aspects of the curriculum, tolerance programs, and other opportunities that validate culture as an asset.

Peer Counseling: A type of intervention in which students help each other through active listening to each others' stories and issues.

Play Therapy: Used by therapists and trained counselors in which aspects of play and use of props by children assist in diagnosis and interpretation of behavioral issues and problems.

Transition Programs: Assist students going from elementary to middle or junior high school in effectively coping with new environments, programs, and choices.

Bibliography

Abdal-Haqq, I. (1994). Culturally responsive curriculum. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education (ERIC Document No. ED370936) Retrieved March 29, 2007 from the http://www.nebraskagifted.org/eric/rural/ed370936.html.

Akos, P. (2005). The unique nature of middle school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 9 , 95-103. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19234054&site=ehost-live

Baruth, L. G. & Manning, M. (2000). Call for multicultural counseling in middle schools. Clearing House, 73, 243-247. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=2873305&site=ehost-live

Carey, J., & Dimmitt, C. (2012). School counseling and student outcomes: Summary of six statewide studies. Professional School Counseling, 16, 146-153. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87539750&site=ehost-live

Downing, J. & D' Andrea, L. (1996). What American elementary school counselors can learn from European educational systems. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 31, 114-121. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9703066776&site=ehost-live

Erk, R. (2003). Special education: Attention deficit disorder: Counselors, laws, and implications for practice. In Remley, T., Hermann, M., & Huey, W. (Eds.). Ethical and Legal Issues in School Counseling (2nd Ed.). American School Counselors Association.

Gibson, R. (1990). Teachers' opinions of high school counseling and guidance programs: Then and now. School Counselor, 37 , Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9608056489&site=ehost-live

Glasser, W. (1969), Schools without failure. Harper & Row: San Francisco.

Goodman, R., & Kjonass, D. (1984). Elementary school family counseling: A pilot project. Journal of Counseling and Development 63, 255-258. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4962941&site=ehost-live

Gysbers, N. C. & Jensen, L. (1999). Strengthen guidance leadership for the 21st century: A white paper for consideration. National Consortium of State Career Guidance Supervisors. Center on Education and Employment/National Occupational Information Center (NOICC). Columbus, OH: The Ohio State University.

Hall, A. S., & Lin, M. (1994). An integrative consultation framework: A practical tool for elementary school counselors. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 29, 16-28. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9503160591&site=ehost-live

Helms, N. E., & Katsiyannis, A. (1992). Counselors in elementary schools: Making it work for students with disabilities. School Counselor, 39 , 232-238. Retrieved March 21, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9608071582&site=ehost-live

History of Career and Vocational Guidance. (2000). Retrieved from Arkansas State University website on March 21, 2007 from http://www.clt.astate.edu/dagnew/co_his/

Hoffman, L. & McDaniels, C. (1991) Career development in the elementary schools: A perspective for the 1990s. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 25 , 163-172. Retrieved March 21, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9606151281&site=ehost-live

Hughey, K. F., & Akos, P. (2005). Foreword: Developmentally responsive middle school counseling. Professional School Counseling, 9 , 93-94. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19234053&site=ehost-live

Keys, S. (2000) Special issue: Collaborating for safe schools and safe communities. Professional School Counseling, 3 4-6 (IV-VI) Retrieved March 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3331725&site=ehost-live

Lapan, R. T. (2012). Comprehensive school counseling programs: In some schools for some students but not in all schools for all students. Professional School Counseling, 16, 84-88. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87539746&site=ehost-live

Lapan, R. T., Whitcomb, S. A., & Aleman, N. M. (2012). Connecticut professional school counselors: College and career counseling services and smaller ratios benefit students. Professional School Counseling, 16, 117-124. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87539745&site=ehost-live

Leseho, J. (1999). Dealing with angry students: A qualitative study with implications for school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 3, 91-101. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3884442&site=ehost-live

Olweus, D. (1993). Bullying at school: What we know and what we can do. Cambridge, MA: Blackwell. Scarborough, J. L. (1997) The SOS Club: A practical peer helper program Professional School Counseling, 1, 25-29. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=144525&site=ehost-live

Schmidt, J., Lanier, S. & Cope, L. (1999). Elementary school guidance and counseling: The last 20 years. Professional School Counseling, 2 , 250-258. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=1786607&site=ehost-live

Sink, C. A. (2005). Fostering academic development and learning: Implications and recommendations for middle school counselors. Professional School Counseling, 9, , 128-135. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19234058&site=ehost-live

Trivedi, L., & Perl, J. (1995) Animal facilitated counseling in the elementary school: A literature review and practical considerations. Elementary School Guidance & Counseling, 29, 223-235. Retrieved March 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9504072345&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Brown, D. (2005) Empowerment through peer counseling. International Center for Disability Resources on the Internet. Retrieved March 23, 2007 from http://www.icdri.org/DSB/empowerment_through_peer_counsel.htm.

Herr, E., Cramer, S., & Niles, S. (2004) Career guidance and counseling through the lifespan. (6th Ed). Pearson: New York.

Hughes, K. L., & Karp, M. M. (2004). School-based career development: A synthesis of the literature. Institute on Education and the Economy. Retrieved March 23, 2007 from http://www.tc.columbia.edu/iee/PAPERS/CareerDevelopment02_04.pdf