Crisis Management (Education)

Crisis management refers to the policies and procedures developed for handling emergency situations. Since crises vary in size and scope, methods and management procedures vary across grade levels and situations. The imperative steps to creating and implementing any effective crisis management plan are mainly prevention, preparation, response and recovery. Debates surround the value of emergency drills and post crisis counseling methods.

Keywords Crisis Management; Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD):; Crisis Intervention Team (CIT); Emergency Responders; Evacuation; Lockdown; Pandemic; Shelter in Place

School Safety > Crisis Management

Overview

What is Crisis Management?

Crisis management is a term that refers to the policies and procedures developed for handling emergency situations in public schools. The 1999 Columbine shootings, the terror attacks of September 11, 2001 and, more recently, the devastation caused by Hurricane Katrina, have prompted local and national governments to research the most effective ways to manage crises in schools.

In 2002, the Department of Safe and Drug-Free Schools together with the Harvard School of Public Health, the Prevention Institute, and the Education Development Center developed a program entitled, "The Three R's to Dealing with Trauma in Schools: Readiness, Response and Recovery" designed to assist schools with crisis management ("Taking the Lead," 2007). In 2003, Education Secretary Rodney Paige and the Secretary of Homeland Security Tom Ridge launched a $30 million initiative providing grants to help schools buy safety equipment, train staff, parents and students in crisis management ("Taking the Lead," 2007).

Crisis often strikes fast so reaction time must be quick. This can only happen when procedures are in place and have been practiced. When a crisis occurs, schools must evaluate the crisis in order to decide whether to evacuate, lockdown, or use schools as a shelter (Poland, 2007). Because every school community is different, it is important for schools to practice a variety of crisis management procedures to determine if they are appropriate. Schools should then personalize their plans to the needs of their community. Plans also should accommodate the age of the student population, as elementary school students will behave differently than middle or high school students (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). The Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools recommends schools and emergency personnel conduct drills and practice scenarios until they have procedures memorized (Black, 2004). Leadership, preparation and communication are essential qualities in managing any type of emergency.

What Constitutes a Crisis?

Webster's Dictionary defines a crisis as an unstable or crucial time or state of affairs in which a decisive change is impending, especially one with the distinct possibility of a highly undesirable outcome (as cited in U.S. Department of Education, 2003). This definition of a crisis is broad. It can range from incidents that only affect a few students to situations that halt an entire community. Crises can happen at any time, in any place, with and without warning. Incidents that qualify as crises include, but are not limited to:

• Bomb threat

• Chemical spill

• Fire

• Natural disaster

• Pandemic

• School violence

• Student or faculty death

• Terrorist attack

• War

• Weather emergency

The one thing all crises have in common is the need for clear communication and quick decision-making. Regardless of the type of crisis, every crisis management plan should include procedures for prevention, preparation, response and recovery (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Applications

Crisis Prevention

The first step in crisis management is prevention. Schools should conduct safety assessments of school property in order to determine if floor plans, lockdown procedures and evacuation routes need to be updated ("Taking the Lead," 2007). It is important to connect with local emergency responders to determine what types of problems are most common in the area and with students ("Taking the Lead," 2007). Emergency responders include law enforcement agents, firefighters and emergency medical technicians.

Prevention often means controlling a problem before it spreads or escalates. In some cases, such as with infectious diseases which can lead to a pandemic, prevention efforts can be as basic as teaching hygiene and providing anti-infection products such as hand sanitizer and anti-viral tissues (St. Gerard, 2007). Education is often the first step in crisis prevention.

Studies Conducted After Columbine

Following the 1999 Columbine High School shooting in Colorado, which resulted in 15 fatalities and 23 injuries, the U.S. Secret Service and U.S. Department of Education conducted a study of 37 school attacks. Their report, released in 2002, concluded that no common profile existed among attackers except for the fact that most of the perpetrators had been bullied or injured by others (Dillon, 2007). This report proves the value of fostering a positive school climate that welcomes diversity and teaches compassion (Dillon, 2007). The report recommends that schools focus on providing a supportive community that helps students mediate and resolve conflicts. Penalties should also be communicated and set forth to discourage students and parents from violent and threatening actions (Dillon, 2007). Dillon (2007) also cites that lawmakers in Pennsylvania considered putting schools on permanent lockdown to prevent violence in schools. In the wake of a school shooting, Platte Canyon High School in Colorado began a program in which parents volunteer to greet visitors at the door and log them in so that no intruder will enter the building unnoticed (Butler, 2007). Increasing police presence and installing metal detectors are other methods used to curb school violence (Dillon, 2007).

The Secret Service and Department of Education also discovered that, in about 80% of the incidents studied, at least one person knew what was going to happen (Dillon, 2007).

Recognizing a potential crisis, and responding quickly, can make a world of difference. Schools need to educate students and teachers how to recognize warning signs. Platte Canyon school district participates in the "Safe to Tell" program, which was initiated after the Columbine shootings (Butler, 2007). The program provides an anonymous hotline where students can report information regarding potential threats (Butler, 2007).

The Department of Education's guide, Practical Information on Crisis Planning encourages schools to consider every possible scenario and utilize every resource to help prevent crises or lessen their impact (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Some suggestions include providing IDs for students and staff, conducting hurricane drills and taking an inventory of hazardous materials on school grounds (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Preparation

Since not all crises can be prevented, the key to successful crisis management is preparation. Schools must make sure that they use all of the resources available: teachers, administrators, social workers, security officers, and emergency responders (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Every responder must be familiar with the school's procedure for handling an emergency. Communication is essential to success. A chain of command should be established and methods of communication determined. A common vocabulary is essential. A crisis committee of faculty, parents and students can help better prepare schools for emergencies (Poland, 2007). This team of people should conduct research to determine what types of crises could occur in a given school and make recommendations as to how to handle them (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). The committee should also examine major issues from past years and evaluate how they were handled. This process ensures that schools regularly review and update procedures (Poland, 2007). The committee should make sure parent contact information is up to date and establish connections with local hospitals and emergency service personnel (Poland, 2007).

Crisis Management Materials

Poland (2007) states that the distribution of crisis management materials is a necessary step in making sure schools are prepared for emergencies. Materials may include phone trees, floor plans, evacuation routes, first aid instructions, and health awareness lists identifying persons with special needs. These materials should be reviewed carefully with staff and students (Poland, 2007). The Department of Education's Emergency Response and Crisis Management Technical Assistance Center also advises schools to provide emergency supply kits to faculty including items such as flashlights, batteries, contact information, first aids supplies and instructions ("Taking the Lead," 2007). The Red Cross recommends schools keep a stock supply of certain items, especially water, first aid and sanitation supplies in the event of a crisis ("Taking the Lead," 2007).

Drills & Exercises

Crisis practices should be thorough, repetitive and easy to follow (McGiboney & Fretwell, 2007). Drills and practice exercises should be performed regularly to prepare school communities to effectively respond to crisis if necessary (Dillon, 2007). It is important to anticipate and prepare for a variety of potential emergencies from hurricanes to school shootings to terrorist attacks. William Modzeleski of the Office of Safe and Drug-free Schools emphasizes the importance of having a consistent crisis plan that is customized to an area's geographic, economic and social needs (Black, 2004). A school close to a power plant, for example, has to factor that element into its crisis management plan. Emergency plans and procedures cannot follow a one size fits all model. Variety is essential if lockdown and evacuation drills are going to be effective (Dillon, 2007).

Response

Depending on the crisis at hand, school response should vary. Successful crisis management plans will have different approaches to different situations. School officials need to be able to quickly assess the crisis at hand and choose the best response (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Emergency responders should be notified as soon as possible (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Evacuation

Evacuation requires students and faculty to leave the building. Fires and bomb threats are possible crises that would require evacuation. Evacuation plans should have designated meeting points outside of the building and should have alternative locations to shelter students if needed (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Evacuation plans must include accommodations for students with disabilities (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Lockdown

A lockdown requires students and staff to stay inside their classroom or building. A lockdown is employed when there is a threat outside the classroom or building. Movement is restricted and students are often instructed to cover and move away from windows (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Possible reasons for a lockdown are the presence of an intruder or a school shooting. In the event of a crisis that requires an extreme lockdown, Black (2004) recommends notifying teachers in a way that does not alarm students, for example sending an email to teachers and then making an announcement instructing all teachers to read their email. Teachers should gather students in one place and account for all of them. Outside entrances should be locked and buses cancelled. Parents should be notified and local radio stations should be informed so they can assist in disseminating information (Black, 2004).

Shelter in Place

The term shelter in place is used when students and staff must remain in a school location when it is not safe or there is not enough time to evacuate, such as in the case of a chemical spill or natural disaster (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Helping students with physical and developmental disabilities during a crisis should be a high priority and extensively planned. In the event of an evacuation, students with physical disabilities will need assistance exiting the building. In some cases, safe zones or areas of refuge should be used until students can be assisted by emergency responders and evacuated (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Schools should make sure accommodations are also in place for students with English language deficiencies (Black, 2007).

As soon as a crisis occurs, faculty should account for all students and do their best to keep students calm. In some cases, faculty may need to administer first aid or get students to a safe area. Parents should be notified as soon as it is safe and appropriate to do so (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). It is also important to be flexible, as no crisis response will unfold exactly as practiced (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Recovery

After a school crisis, once students and faculty are safe, the main priority of schools is restoring a normal learning environment (Poland, 2007). The Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools states that, "returning to the business of learning" helps most students move forward after a crisis has occurred (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Learning can only take place, however, once the emotional needs of crisis victims have been met.

Crisis Intervention & Debriefing

Schools should enlist the assistance of a Crisis Intervention Team (CIT) to help students and staff cope with the crisis they experienced (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Group Crisis Intervention (GCI) is a form of school-based intervention that might be used in schools allows students to share feelings, ask questions and come to terms with traumatic events (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Another form of group counseling, known as Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD), may be used after a crisis (Black, 2004). CISD is also used with adults who have experienced a traumatic event such as war or a violent attack in order to prevent Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome (Black, 2004). Mental health professionals also should be on hand to provide individual counseling as needed.

Once school resumes its normal schedule, teachers should provide students with a place to discuss their feelings about what happened in order to help reduce stress (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Teachers should continue to monitor student behavior for signs of distress after a crisis (Poland, 2007). Additionally, the CIT should conduct follow-up sessions with students after some time has passed (Poland, 2007). Schools should consider honoring anniversaries and creating memorials and other positive ways to cope with crises (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Managing Crises in Post-Secondary Schools

Statistically, campuses of college and universities are some of the safest places in the country (Kennedy, 2007). Even so, a thorough examination of security measures and crisis management policies at post-secondary campuses has followed the recent massacre at Virginia Polytechnic Institute & State University in which a student opened fire on several classrooms killing 33 people (Kennedy, 2007). The U.S. Department of Homeland Security's Office for Domestic Preparedness has since developed some guidelines for crisis management in post-secondary institutions. The document entitled "Campus Public Safety: Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism Protective Measures" suggests colleges connect with a local FBI agent as well as state and local officials in order to ensure communication procedures are in place (Taking the Lead, 2007). Every campus also should have onsite emergency personnel, as the biggest focus for post-secondary schools should be deterrence. This includes assessing risk, using video cameras to monitor school grounds and providing means to lock and secure buildings (Taking the Lead, 2007).

An important element in preventing such tragedies as the Virginia Tech shooting is making sure schools offer mental health services to their students (Kennedy, 2007). Depression and suicide are common in the college environment so assistance must be readily available for emotionally fragile students. Teachers and students also need better education so that they may recognize warning signs and steer potentially violent individuals to get the help they need (Kennedy, 2007). The sharing of information among appropriate persons is crucial to keeping post-secondary campuses safe (Kennedy, 2007).

Viewpoints

Do Practice Drills Cause More Harm Than Help?

One cause for concern is the results of a study conducted by the International Association of Chiefs of Police in 1999. The study determined that crisis drills could provide helpful information to potential student attackers in terms of revealing evacuation routes, hiding places and areas of refuge (Black 2003). Another concern with recent initiatives to prepare students for school threats is that it enhances the public perception that schools are unsafe. This view may cause students to feel anxious thus negatively affecting the learning environment (Black, 2004).

The good news is that major crises in U.S. schools are in fact rare (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). The bad news is that there is minimal research on best practices for school-based crisis planning. What little research is available on crisis management is not quantifiable. There is little hard evidence to tell schools what will work in the event of a crisis (U.S. Department of Education, 2003). Roseanne Nyiri, the superintendent of Springfield Township School in Pennsylvania, is not entirely sold on the virtues of crisis management training. She does not believe that extra training and security would have prevented the incident in her district where a 16-year old student walked into school with a shotgun and killed himself (cited in Butler, 2007). However, she is convinced that practice lockdown drills did help students and staff stay calm throughout the crisis (cited in Butler, 2007).

Platte Canyon High School staff and students had undergone crisis management training and performed several lockdown drills in 2006, but that did not prevent an armed gunman from entering the building, taking six hostages, killing one student and himself (Butler, 2007). Platte Canyon's superintendent, James Walpole says that more important than training is forming a close relationship with local law enforcement so that they are familiar with the school, its students and overall climate (cited in Butler, 2007).

The Effectiveness of Post-Crisis Counseling

After a crisis occurs at a school, counselors are summoned to help school faculty and students deal with the emotional aftermath in a productive way. Many schools have employed a technique called Critical Incident Stress Debriefing but the benefit of this type of counseling has been called into question (Black, 2004). According to Pauline Pagliocca of the Victims of Violence Programs at Harvard University, no evidence exists to prove that CISD is effective (cited in Black, 2004). In fact, the U.S. Department of Defense, the Department of Justice, the Department of Health and Human Services and the American Red Cross have recently stopped using CISD on trauma victims (Black, 2004).

Conclusion

All school systems inevitably will have to deal with crises, therefore they should plan accordingly. It may be difficult to grasp the possibility of being affected by a situation like Columbine, Hurricane Katrina or 9/11, but in the event, it is better to be ready than caught unprepared (McGiboney & Fretwell, 2007).

After a crisis, it is equally important to evaluate the crisis response plan that was used in order to determine what practices were successful and what practices were unsuccessful. Effective crisis management is an ongoing process that requires constant activity. Schools and their surroundings are constantly changing; so too should our responses to them. Research and revision are integral parts of the process that is crisis management (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Terms & Concepts

Crisis Management: Crisis management refers to the policies and procedures developed for handling emergency situations in public schools.

Critical Incident Stress Debriefing (CISD): Critical Incident Stress Debriefing refers to a type of group counseling that may be used after a traumatic event, such as war or a violent attack, in order to prevent Post Traumatic Stress Syndrome (Black, 2004).

Crisis Intervention Team (CIT): A Crisis Intervention Team consists of a group of trained counselors and mental health professionals hired to help schools recover from a crisis. Intervention in schools allows students to share feelings, ask questions and dispel rumors about crisis events (Black, 2004).

Emergency Responders: Emergency responder is a general title given to individuals including law enforcement agents, firefighters, emergency medical technicians and other individuals trained to respond to crises.

Evacuation: Evacuation is a term used when students and faculty are required to leave a building. Evacuation is required in instances such as a fire or bomb threat.

Lockdown: Lockdown is a term used when there is a threat outside of the classroom or school building. Movement is restricted and individuals are advised to cover windows and move away from them (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Pandemic: Pandemic refers to a major outbreak of an infectious disease such as the flu or smallpox.

Shelter in Place: Shelter in place is a term used in response to a situation in which it is not safe or timely for individuals to evacuate a building (U.S. Department of Education, 2003).

Bibliography

Black, S. (2004). When disaster strikes. American School Board Journal, 191 , 36-38. Retrieved September 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=13416723&site=ehost-live

Butler, K. (2007). Tragic lessons. District Administration, 43 , 56-60. Retrieved September 9, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25090224&site=ehost-live

Dillon, N. (2007). Planning to ensure our schools are safe. Education Digest, 72 , 9- 11. Retrieved September 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25057128&site=ehost-live

Fernandez, D.J. (2013). What Sandy taught me: Seven lessons for dealing with natural disasters. Independent School, 72, 112-116. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85748167&site=ehost-live

Kennedy, M. (2013). Managing a crisis. American School & University, 85, 16. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88863556&site=ehost-live

Kennedy, M. (2007). Seeking secure schools. American School & University, 79 , 6- 10. Retrieved September 9, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=26056001&site=ehost-live

Kingshott, B.F., & McKenzie, D.G. (2013). Developing crisis management protocols in the context of school safety. Journal of Applied Security Research, 8, 222-245. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=86356480&site=ehost-live

Kisch, M. (2012). When crises call. School Administrator, 69, 19-25. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=77304366&site=ehost-live

McGiboney, G & Fretwell, Q. (2007). Pandemic planning for schools. American School Board Journal,194 , 46-47. Retrieved September 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25745244&site=ehost-live

Poland, S., & Poland, D. (2007). Safe school preparations for your district. District Administration, 43 , 88. Retrieved September 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25585816&site=ehost-live

St. Gerard, V. (2007). Don't confuse common flu with a flu PANDEMIC. Education Digest, 72 , 4-6. Retrieved September 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24052703&site=ehost-live

Taking the lead in an emergency. (2007) Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers, 82 , 12-13. Retrieved September 6, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24751714&site=ehost-live

U.S. Department of Education, Office of Safe and Drug-Free Schools (2003). Practical Information on Crisis Planning: A Guide for Schools and Communities.. Retrieved September 6, 2007, from U.S. Department of Education www.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/emergencyplan/crisisplanning.pdf

Suggested Reading

Bowman, D., & Johnston, R. (2001). Urban districts review crisis-response plans in wake of terrorism. Education Week, 21 . Retrieved September 7, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5410783&site=ehost-live

Corbitt-Dipierro, C. (n.d.) Expanding the team approach: How emergency responders and those they serve can work together to promote prevention and coordinate incident response. Retrieved September 7, 2007, from www.threatplan.org

Office for Domestic Preparedness, U.S. Department of Homeland Security. (2003). Campus Public Safety: Weapons of Mass Destruction Terrorism Protective Measures . Retrieved September 7, 2007, from U.S. Department of Education www.ed.gov/admins/lead/safety/emergencyplan/campussafe.html

U.S Department of Education, The Harvard School of Public Health, Education Development Center & Prevention Institute (2002). The three R's to dealing with trauma in schools: Readiness, response and recovery . Retrieved September 7, 2007, from http://www.walcoff.com/prevention/