Educational Stratification

Globalization has emphasized the effects that educational attainment has on social stratification. Service-based organizations work to assist developing nations and regions in increasing educational levels among their populations, yet they often forget that research findings based on developed nations may not easily translate into success for developing nations. It is true that state and global forces impact educational opportunities and family background influences both educational attainment and social mobility. However, these impacts and influences are often very different based on the wealth and governmental structure of the country. This paper compares the impacts of global forces and familial structure on educational and future social mobility for America, India, and Africa.

Keywords Colonization; Developing Country; Educational Sociology; Globalization; Gross Domestic Product; Infrastructure; Literacy Rate; Non-Governmental Organization (NGO); Socioeconomic Status; Social Justice; Stratification; Sustainable Development; Truancy

Global Stratification > Educational Stratification

Overview

In Barbara Kingsolver's novel, The Poisonwood Bible, a missionary family travels from the American state of Georgia to live in the African Congo as representatives of their Christian church. The opening chapters describe how the Price family prepares for this venture. They pack up their belongings under the assumption that life in the Congo will be similar to their current lives. They go to great lengths to take along cake mixes, bibles, hand mirrors, seeds, etc. with the intent to tame the Congo, convert the natives, and teach the natives a "better" approach to life. As the story progresses, Mrs. Price and her four daughters recognize that what they brought to the Congo is of no help at all: their seeds do not grow the way they had in the States, there is no oven in which to bake a cake, and their Western notions of truth and civility do not work in this culture. Even the language presents a barrier to Mr. Price, who never accepts that Western ways will not work in this new and different place. He never takes the time to actually learn the language and customs of these people as he zealously works to convert them to Christianity and the ways of his Western culture. He continues to ignore the subtleties of their language although he uses it in his sermons; preaching passionately that Jesus is bangala. His intent is to teach these natives that Jesus is the beloved one. However, his pronunciation of bangala is flawed — so the message conveyed to the Congolese is that Jesus is poisonwood (i.e., the source of pain and death).

As the book progresses, the reader begins to see the arrogance embedded in the Price family's initial opinions of the Congolese and to understand why their Western ways will not work in the Congo. This family is sincere (though clearly misguided) in their desire to help the Congolese. However, they come to realize that many of the Americans who are in the Congo under the guise of providing education and infrastructure to Africa are actually taking advantage by helping themselves to the rich resources of the land. Yes, they build roads; but only roads that facilitate the removal of gold and diamonds. Yes, they educate the Congolese; but only to the level that allows the Congolese to be useful while remaining in a colonized state (Meredith, 2007).

Researchers have come to realize that America often creates its own Poisonwood Bible story via the provision of educational assistance to developing countries. We have entered each country well equipped with the provisions that have worked at home while forgetting to consider how and why the culture of each country differs from ours (Heyneman & Loxley, 1983; King & van de Walle, 2007). But we are learning how state and global forces act differently in different countries, how a student's family background in developing nations differs from country to country, and how the education connects to social mobility and educational attainment in ways we can't understand if we have not come to learn the culture of the country we are purporting to help.

Further Insights

Governmental & Economic Structure Impacts Educational Opportunities

The United States

American communities are structured by values and laws which encourage children to go to school and stay in school. For decades America has enjoyed a strong economy with high degrees of educational opportunity and occupational attainment and has been grounded in the notion of Equal Educational Opportunity. Based on the privileges of life, liberty, and property secured for all people in the United States and the precedent for equal access set forth by Brown v. Board of Education (1954), several federal acts have been signed into law to guarantee basic educational rights to all students (Huefner, 2000). This intricate web of subordinate laws has been developed and enforced in order to support American educational values. The Compulsory Education Law compels parents to register and send their children aged 5-18 to school (although states may vary the age requirement). Parents who do not comply with compulsory education laws can be charged with a misdemeanor and their children may be punished under the state juvenile truancy laws. The Federal Fair Labor Standards Act (FLSA) protects the time children need to access educational opportunities by restricting the number of hours and conditions under which all children may be employed. The FLSA laws are intended to ensure each generation will mature into educated citizens who contribute to their societies and to ensure children are too busy to get into much mischief (Buchmann & Hannum, 2001).

The Elementary and Secondary Education Act (ESEA) provides Federal monies (i.e., a centralized governmental source) to pay the costs of attendance for each child in the public school system so that public education can remain "free" (i.e., taxpayer supported). However, the funding is somewhat tied to assurances regarding the quality of teaching as the reauthorized ESEA evolved into what is commonly known as No Child Left Behind. As a result, children at all levels of the economic strata are expected to attend school, protected from labor market expectations until they are 16 years old, and are ensured a meaningful educational experience supported by sufficient resources once they enter the classroom.

The American ideology assumes children to be non-contributing family members. This means parents have the luxury of rearing children without expecting the children to provide economic input to ensure the survival of the family. The federal and state governments share in the expense of educating each child enrolled in a public school system in an attempt to ensure access to the public school system. Historically speaking, America is a wealthy, stable country which can afford to provide rich resources for public schools. It reserves 5.6% of its Gross Domestic Product (GDP) for education and these monies are enhanced by individual states and, often, parental donations (UNESCO, 2010). The American educational plan generally works precisely because America enjoys a strong and stable position in the global economy.

Education leads to enhanced job opportunities, reinforces sustainable development, and helps to form the next generation of good community members (Thornton & Jaeger, 2008). Many countries have asked for help in creating similar educational opportunities for their people and America has stepped up to the plate to lend them a hand. However, when American-based laws and structures are implemented in developing countries, economic and governmental structural differences can alter outcomes and impede success. The outcomes are seldom those expected- much like the Price family's garden seeds which only produced huge, malformed bushes that would bear no fruit when planted in Africa.

Developing Countries

In America, the literacy rate stands at 99% for both males and females (CIA, 2008). Developing countries do not enjoy similar literacy rates. The lowest literacy rates are concentrated in three regions: South and West Asia, Sub-Saharan Africa, and the Arab states (CIA, 2008) despite the attention and assistance provided to them via foreign governments, the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO), the World Bank, Unite for Children (UNICEF), and American Peace Corps these countries have not experienced a magnitude of success as quickly as hoped (UNESCO, 2008).

Developing countries have struggled to meaningfully implement laws compelling parents to register and send their children to school. Two economic impediments block the way to success. First, in developing countries, government resources are often scarce and the governments are weak and/or unstable. Second, families in developing countries often lack the resources to send their children to school (Buchmann & Hannum, 2001). Children are often needed to contribute to the family resources at very young ages if the family unit is to survive.

When a developing country implements laws to support compulsory education, it often lacks the resources and governmental support necessary to provide children access to a quality education (Buchmann & Hannum, 2001). For example, India has pledged a commitment to extend educational opportunity to all of its children. However, it continues to show slow improvement and reports at a 74 percent literacy rate in 2011. Despite its stated commitment to put all children aged 6-14 years in school by 2015, India continues to report one of the highest rates of out-of-school children in the world. In 2013 India had eight million children who have never attended school, with eighty million dropping out of school without completing a basic education. India focuses on increasing enrollment rates but struggles to provide a meaningful educational experience because of a lack of sufficient resources to fund public schools. Most of India's poor children continue to lack access to a physical school building and adequately trained teachers. Thus the quality of most available schooling is poor, at best, and will most likely remain so until the government agrees to centralize its governance and resources in order to maximize the limited funding available for education. India spends only 3.3 percent of its meager GDP on education in 2010(CIA, 2010; UNESCO, 2010). However, India has implemented a distance learning educational program in the hopes of reaching more students and keeping them enrolled in school.

Subsaharan Africa is a region in which there have historically been wealthier people who are well educated (e.g., Kenya has an overall literacy rate of 87 percent) as well as an abundance of countries populated with poorer, illiterate citizens (e.g., Somalia has an overall literacy rate of 37.8%; males are at 49.7% and females are at 25.8%) (CIA, 2008). The regional income disparities result in an inequitable distribution of educational resources as well as inconsistent school quality (Buchmann, 1999). Africa is relatively unstable and strives to utilize community volunteers and non-governmental organizations (NGOs) to provide systemic stability in the absence of a strong, centralized national government. Unfortunately, the system does not appear to be thriving. The institutional structure of the educational service providers appears to be rife with corruption and is extremely difficult to navigate when pursuing services of any type. The lack of essential resources (and the concomitant institutional dishonesty) leaves African schools in dire need of school facilities, educational materials, and quality teachers (Buchmann & Hannum, 2001).

The AIDS epidemic has also taken its toll on the African educational system. Teachers have died of AIDS, many school-age children are ill with AIDS, and many of the older children lack hope for the future. Education has little meaning to a person who believes she will die of AIDS before she gets a chance to enter adulthood (Itano, 2008). In addition, numerous African countries are in the midst of war or struggling with its recent aftermath, such as in the conflict in Darfur or countries affected by the Arab Spring in 2011. Wars have destroyed schools, eliminated the recruitment of quality teachers, and converted school-age AIDS orphans into child soldiers (Allemano, 2008; Reuters, 2007). There are few laws and circumstances creating a structure in which children are protected enough to access a quality education in Africa. Many of the protections children receive are from their families; and even the family structure differs when developing countries are compared to American culture.

Family Structure

American nuclear families typically consist of one to two parents and some children. Early sociological and educational research suggests education can work as a sorting mechanism; helping to sort people into various levels of occupations and social positions (although most people end up in the same stratification as their parents) (Blasko' & Robert, 2007; Nesbit, 2006). Educational inequalities appear to be built into the system; sometimes barring access or opportunity for future upward movement. As the research became more sophisticated, it was noted that family structure (and the families' concomitant socioeconomic status, available resources, and power to influence) impacts each students' educational opportunities and stratification mobility potential. In 1966, The Coleman Report (Coleman, Campbell, Hobson, McParland, & Mood, 1966) suggested a child's academic achievement is tied more to family background than it is to the factors controlled by the school. This notion was largely accepted as truth. The World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF, the Peace Corps and other service-based entities developed programs to help developing and undeveloped countries move forward based on what had been learned about education in American schools. Success was frustratingly absent (Daniel, 2002). Later research on developing countries refuted the conclusions drawn from the Coleman report. In developing countries, factors such as teacher quality and resources available to the school appeared to be more strongly tied to academic success than family background (Heyneman & Loxley, 1983).

Once again, it appears that research conducted and interpreted in highly developed countries is not universal. Just as the Price family had packed up their boxes of cake mix while dreaming of sharing birthday cakes in the Congo, developed countries had packed up their research knowledge while dreaming to help enhance educational opportunity in developing countries . Ideologies are rarely universal; what works in one country may not be available, workable, or feasible in another (Heyneman & Loxley, 1983; King & van de Walle, 2007). Even data on family structure can be turned upside down when countries do not have similar cultures. In America, the youngest children in low-income families are the ones who are often short-shrifted as the family spends their resources on the oldest children until resources are depleted. In countries like India and Africa, the youngest children often fare the best because the oldest children go to work instead of to school, do not leave the nuclear family unit when they achieve adulthood, and provide additional income to the family which can fund an education for the younger children (Buchmann, 1999).

Families in developing countries typically include many more people than American nuclear families. Grandparents, aunts, uncles, and cousins are considered to be part of the nuclear family. In India and Africa the family's socioeconomic status does not play the same part in the stratification process as it does in America. In fact, it appears opportunity for social mobility via educational success is highest in low-income countries and makes very little impact in high income countries (World Bank, 2005). Education is a finite resource in developing countries. Although no one has conclusively determined why family status plays a large role in social stratification only in high-income countries it is quite possible that the homogeneous level of family poverty in the low-income countries could account for some of the difference (Heyneman & Loxley, 1983). Additionally, it should be remembered that America has rich educational resources while Africa, India, and other developing nations have a paucity of educational facilities, textbooks, and quality teachers.

Viewpoints

Perhaps, like Maslow's Hierarchy of needs, educational needs exist in a hierarchy wherein the fundamental factors of education remain in the forefront as long as the basics are not in place. Thus, students in countries with limited educational access are able to experience upward mobility if they are lucky enough to attain an education. However, once everyone has basic access to the educational necessities, it becomes a neutral factor and then socioeconomic factors superimpose themselves onto the mobility framework. In other words, as long as there is a dearth of educational resources the fact that a child receives an education will help move the child up the social stratification scale. However, once educational resources are available to all children the access a family has to various types of capital (which will be used to firmly position a child as high as possible on the stratification scale) will become what helps move the child up the social stratification scale.

In order to help developing countries attain goals of increased literacy and education, organizations must pay more attention to the mechanics of providing access to a basic level of education for all students. Once that basic level has been attained, the organizations need to focus on linking children from low-income families to various forms of capital if they want to create possibilities for upward mobility. The World Bank, UNESCO, UNICEF and other organizations do not always appear to recognize the differences between India, Africa, and America, mistakenly believing ideologies can easily transfer between states (Daniel, 2002; Heyneman & Loxley, 1983). However, they are learning. Like the Price family, some entities will come to learn how to provide meaningful help to developing countries, others will lose interest and abandon the effort; still others will drive themselves crazy by trying to provide misguided assistance while telling the developing nation that American-style educational interventions is bangala.

It is important to remember there are exceptions within each country. America also has schools that tend to fail to produce well-educated students. American students most at risk of receiving a low quality education live in inner cities or in rural areas. (Interested readers are encouraged to read Savage Inequalities: Children in America's Schools by J. Kozol.) Developing countries tend to provide lower quality educations to children living in the rural areas; children lucky enough to live in the cities typically receive better quality educations (Buchmann & Hannum, 2001).

Terms & Concepts

Colonization: The subjugation of the people who already live in a country or a regional area to a group of new arrivers.

Developing Country: A country that is poor (and comprised of mostly agricultural workers) whose citizens want to become more advanced socially and economically — usually via industrialization.

Gross Domestic Product (GDP): The calculated value of all final goods and services produced within a nation in a given year.

Infrastructure: A term describing public and quasi-public utilities and facilities created for the good of the public (e.g., roads, bridges, sewers and sewer plants, water lines, electrical power lines, etc.).

Literacy Rate: The percentage of people (over the age of 15) in a country who can both read and write.

Non-Governmental Organization (NGO): A non-profit, voluntary citizens' group which is organized on an international level. Some NGOs concentrate their efforts on a specific issue, like human rights, healthcare, or education, and their relationships with the United Nations vary depending on their organizational goals and where they carry out their work.

Socioeconomic Status: One's status in society as determined by an interaction of social factors and relative level of income.

Sustainable Development: Development that is designed to ensure that the use of resources will not restrict or prevent their future use.

Truancy: The act or condition of being absent from a school without a valid excuse.

Bibliography

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Suggested Reading

Abowitz, K. K. (2008). On the public and civic purposes of education. Educational Theory, 58, 357-376. Retrieved September 12, 2008 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=33923886&site=ehost-live

Bukodi, E., & Goldthorpe, J. H. (2013). Decomposing ‘Social Origins’: The Effects of Parents’ Class, Status, and Education on the Educational Attainment of Their Children. European Sociological Review, 29, 1024–39. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=90612358

Kingsolver, B. (2003). The poisonwood bible. New York, NY: HarperCollins.

Kozol, J. (1991). Savage inequalities: Children in America's schools. New York, NY: Crown Publishers.

Zhou, X. (2012). A Nonparametric Index of Stratification. Sociological Methodology, 42, 365–89. Retrieved October 28, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database SocINDEX with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=83576839