Elective Courses

Abstract

Elective courses (or electives) are optional, alternative classes in which students choose to enroll, and which are outside the core curriculum. Among the many advantages of elective courses are that they increase flexibility in the curriculum and provide students with greater variety and more choice. The disadvantages of electives include that they are little understood or appreciated by politicians, parents and the general public. As such, electives face virtually constant political, administrative and budgetary pressures which threaten their continuance. Research has discovered substantial gender differences and gender gaps with respect to enrollments in elective courses by boys and girls. Middle and high school girls tend to take fewer elective science, mathematics, engineering, computer and technology classes than do boys.

Overview

Elective courses are classes in the curriculum that students choose to take. They are sometimes called "selectives" because students can select the courses that interest them. Elective courses are made available to students on an elective basis in a "free-choice" curriculum. A student's elective program consists of optional courses outside the core curriculum--classes beyond those that are minimally required for graduation or advancement (Anderson, 2006; Caffyn, 1972; Kirschenbaum, 1969). The elective portions of the educational program are designed to meet the specialized needs and interests shared by some but not all learners. Some student electives are part of exploratory programs and are experiential in nature. An example of these would be a particular internship course of special interest to a student (Beane, Toepfer, & Alessi, 1986; Black, 1995).

The elective curricular offerings of school districts vary at different grade levels. Elementary school is traditionally a general education curriculum experience and few, if any, elective programs or courses are offered. The elective curriculum at the secondary school level is typically more extensive. There is an increasing emphasis on specialization and the relative proportion of elective courses increases. Students progress from grade to grade by completing certain required and elective courses (Baker, 1961; Beane et al., 1986; Gerwin & Visone, 2006).

The distribution of courses between core studies and electives is an important characteristic and a key feature of the curriculum (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000). All students participate in the core components of the curriculum. However, the core curriculum is not necessarily the venue in which students achieve all common learning goals. Students may achieve some of the same learning goals of a core curriculum in different contexts--namely, those of well-designed sets of electives. Thus, the term "elective" does not refer only to studies that go beyond basic literacy (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000). It refers to advanced elective academic courses as well. Student enrollment in elective courses is competitive. Elective programs compete for student enrollments and students' motivations are important to enrollments, particularly in high school elective courses (Stewart-Strobelt & Chen, 2003).

History. The secondary school elective curriculum has its deep roots in the educational history of the 1880s and 1890s (Boston University School of Education, 1884: Christenbury, 1980). It was a logical development that sprang from such movements as "life-adjustment education" and the Progressive era (Christenbury, 1980). The elective curriculum provided a springboard for the examination of many basic issues in secondary school learning and teaching: change, variety, relevance, viability of the core curriculum concept, and student and teacher interests. The elective curriculum gave students and teachers a powerful impetus for controlling instruction and learning, and it was truly innovative in restructuring the traditional curriculum and paying serious attention to new subjects (Christenbury, 1980).

In the early 1960s, U.S. schools taught students the basics: English, math, some history, introductory science, and perhaps a foreign language. By the late 1960s, electives began to sprout and flower into fruition in some curricular areas such as English. In the 1970s and 1980s, public secondary schools began to offer more politically motivated courses. Districts offered a veritable plethora of instructional elective courses dealing with such topics as drug abuse and prevention, sex education and teen pregnancy prevention, parenting, moral education, and courses to combat other societal ills. Other electives included ethnic studies, career education, energy, environment, etc. Non-core extras such as physical education, shop, home economics, and even driver education could be accommodated in the curriculum without straining a school system's resources (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Christenbury, 1979; Kirst, 1982).

However, in the late 1980s, the burgeoning curriculum began to burst at the seams. Many school districts offered substantial lists of electives. Cetron and Gayle (1991) lambasted school systems for having "an endless list of electives that have little or nothing to do with education as we once knew it" (p. 94). They point out that in at least 13 states, high school students could earn at least half of the credits required for graduation from electives.

Reversing the Tide of Electives: Adler

The all-consuming question of the common needs of all learners has historically generated more debate in the curriculum field than any other (Beane et al., 1986). It came to a head in the 1980s when numerous groups and commissions issued reports that called for one or another set of requirements in the school program. Three of these reports were developed by Mortimer J. Adler (1902–2001) and the Paideia Group. In considering the essentials of basic schooling, Adler argued in his Paideia Proposal that there should be a single, required 12-year course of study for all without any electives except for a choice on a modern second language: Chinese, French, German, Italian, Russian, or Spanish (Adler, 1982a).

Adler's philosophy allowed little or no room for individual choice and for student involvement in curricular decisions affecting them. It was a curriculum policy by fiat in which curriculum mandates were passed down by expert authority. A special category of individuals made authoritative educational decisions for the rest (Schubert, 1987). With the elimination of all electives, as proposed by Adler's philosophy, all forms of specialization, including particularized job training, and all else that should be excluded from basic schooling was excluded (Adler, 1982b). Like Mortimer Adler, Theodore Sizer (1984) also recommended doing away with electives and vocational programs and concentrating the curriculum on thinking skills and core concepts (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Schubert, 1987).

In the Paideia Proposal, Adler boldly proclaims that "The best education for the best is the best education for all" (Adler, 1982, p. 7). Two sequels to Adler's work are Paideia Problems and Possibilities and The Paideia Program: An Educational Syllabus, which were published in 1983 and 1984 respectively (Schubert, 1987). This three-volume major commission report—Adler's Paideia trilogy—greatly influenced curriculum policy in the 1980s and 1990s.

In the late 1990s and early 2000s, as state- and national-mandated curricula and standardized testing programs took over the public educational arena, elective courses began to be reduced and eliminated in many schools as more and more teacher and student time was devoted to the preparation for these annual examinations.

Applications

Elective Offerings. Electives include a wide variety of curricular offerings and activities that differ from district to district. Courses that are required in one school district may be electives in another and completely unavailable in a third. Courses with the same title vary widely in content from one district to another, from one school to another within the same district, and often from one classroom to the next within the same school (Beane et al., 1986; Cetron & Gayle, 1991).

Beane et al. (1986) classify electives by dividing them into four types of learning experiences:

• General education extensions
• Advanced exploratory courses
• Career-related courses
• Activities

Electives can be extensions of the general education, or core, curriculum. General education extensions include advanced academic or subject-centered courses. Advanced exploratory courses are offered to learners with special interests or talents, for example, advanced work in art or music. Career-related courses center on various vocations or occupations. Activities include subject-related organized activities (e.g., foreign language clubs, yearbook, debate, band, orchestra, chorus, intramural or interscholastic sports) and various service-oriented social clubs. Activities are often considered extra-curricular or co-curricular, but these types of experiences involve important learning and play an integral role in the all-school program (Beane et al., 1986; Kirst, 1982).

Integrating Electives with Core Curricula. There are various ways the different aspects of the all-school program can be integrated. Beane et al. (1986) illustrates these as shown in Figure 1, which is a modification of their representation (p. 186). They subdivide required experiences into academic and exploratory types and include electives as the third major category of school experiences. Although these three aspects can be identified and described separately, effective programs offer opportunities to integrate them into comprehensive and balanced educational experiences for learners. By doing so, the four respective areas of intersection in Figure 1 become important and can be explained in the manner shown.

Middle School Programs. Elective and non-core courses are rarely offered in K-5 schools. However, outstanding middle school programs do offer some elective courses. For example, middle schools may offer elective courses to teach proficient reading strategies to students. Other middle schools, however, have actually reduced elective courses in the curriculum to create room for 90-minute reading classes and tutoring in reading for low-performing students (Kornfeld, 2003; McCarthy, 1981; McEwin, Dickinson, & Jacobson, 2005; Scherer, 2005).

Traditional exploratory programs are offered at the middle school level. Increased emphasis has been given to integrating exploration within the core curriculum. There are three major models for exploratory programs in middle schools. In the first, traditional exploratory courses such as art, music, and industrial arts are offered. The second model involves elective mini-courses in curricular areas such as newspapers, environmental issues, and video productions. The third model is based on the integration of exploratory opportunities within the core curriculum—for example, relating a single topic to mathematics, social studies, or language arts (Warren, Allen, & McKenna, 1998).

Electives Offered in High School. Some high schools consider it imperative to retain extensive curricular offerings of elective courses to capitalize on student interests and individual needs. Students may, for example, elect to take advanced mathematics classes such as pre-calculus and/or calculus. Nontraditional elective courses in English that focus on writing instruction may be offered to high school juniors and seniors. Psychology and sociology are popular, typically high-enrollment, elective courses in high schools. Foreign language study is often elective in high schools. Students may elect foreign language courses from among various competing language programs. High school technology literacy elective courses are offered as well.

Technology education classes are attractive as elective courses because of their contributions to creative, hands-on, and practical thinking skills. Technology education and career education program electives in high school provide hands-on instruction involving projects and activities in teaching modern technologies in various trades such as graphic arts and drafting, electricity and electronics, metal manufacturing, wood construction, and automotive/power (Des Moines Public Schools, 1993). Physical education classes are many times optional elective courses in high schools (Anderson, 2006; Applebee, 1978; Black, 1995; Indiana Department of Education, 2001; Kirst, 1982; Ntoumanis, 2005; Stewart-Strobelt & Chen, 2003; Verner, Waks, & Kolberg, 1997).

Curricular Components. The American Association for the Advancement of Science (2000) has developed a graphical representation of the distribution of core, "core plus" and elective curricular components. Their graphic, which is modified and presented as Figure 2, illustrates their distribution. As the association points out, it is difficult in practice to decide what is and is not core in the curriculum. In situations where all students must take the same course at the same pace and with the same requirements for success, it is clear what is core. However, when students are grouped in such a way that different students take different versions of the same course, it becomes unclear. In situations where students are required only to take the same general subject, for example, mathematics and different courses--business math or algebra or calculus--under that title, it becomes even less clear (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000).

Explanation. The vast majority of curricula have various proportions of studies that are core and non-core electives (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000). The proportional distributions of core, core plus, and electives can be planned across the four grade ranges—K–2, 3–5, 6–8, and 9–12—as shown in Figure 2. In the lower grades, it is not rare that all students take exactly the same program of studies. In the K–2 grade range, for example, all students are exposed to the very same core program. In the 3–5 grade range, all students take the same core, but there are options for students to pursue topics at a more advanced level, although these are usually provided at approximately the same time and location, which is called "core plus" (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000).

In the 6–8 grade range, students take core plus but reserve about 20 percent of the span on average, gradually increasing by year from 10 to 20 to 30 percent respectively of individual grades 6, 7, and 8, for alternative electives that are scheduled separately (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000). In the 9–12 grade range, students reserve half or more of the first two years for core plus, after which they take all electives except for a single capstone course that is required of all seniors (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000).

Viewpoints

Advantages. Many of the advantages of electives result from the disadvantages of required courses. Elective courses increase flexibility in the curriculum and provide students with greater variety and more choice. An elective course system offers a structure in which students may choose courses relevant to their needs and interests (Cavanaugh, 2007; Creager, 1976; Kirschenbaum, 1969).

• Elective courses are student-centered and allow for individual differences.
• Electives increase opportunities for students and cultivate their creative and analytical skills.
• Electives give students a better chance to develop individual talents (Cavanaugh, 2007; Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Taylor & Henderson, 1971).
• Elective courses stimulate students' interests, prompt better classroom discussions, and promote greater involvement in student-led activities.
• Students perceive greater applicability of course material to their future career opportunities.
• Elective courses assist students in developing independent learning skills and in becoming lifelong learners (Cavanaugh, 2007; Gerwin & Visone, 2006; McGoldrick & Schuhmann, 2002; Taylor & Henderson, 1971).
• Elective courses increase students' self-motivation.
• They encourage some students to stay in school and complete their education. (Cetron & Gayle, 1991; Kirschenbaum, 1969; Taylor & Henderson, 1971; Verner, Waks, & Kolberg, 1997).

In elective courses, teachers move away from in-class lectures, drills and recitation, rote learning, memorization, and the coverage of facts for state-mandated courses and state-mandated exams. Elective courses provide opportunities to incorporate strategies such as independent research projects (Cavanaugh, 2007; Gerwin & Visone, 2006).

Electives lead to increased enrollments. Students self-evaluate, judge their own abilities, and enroll in courses in which they believe they are capable of high achievement. Elective courses encourage students to take classes they might otherwise not take. Additional courses in the curriculum are developed and taught (Taylor & Henderson, 1971).

Disadvantages. As early as the late 1800s, criticisms were leveled that elective courses compromise the best interests of ambitious students as a result of their predilection to make mistakes due to their lack of wisdom and life experience (Boston University School of Education, 1884). The same article charges that students lose the discipline they need because elective courses provide a motive to the less studious to look for easy classes and to avoid strict teachers.

Elective courses demand additional planning, curriculum development, and implementation. Elective courses require increased administration, participation of teachers in scheduling, and changes in elective course schedules after classes have begun. Students typically need an increased level of counseling and advice with respect to selecting elective courses (Beckman, 1953; Kirschenbaum, 1969; Mann, 1996).

Other Issues. The course offerings in an elective curriculum may be limited in number, and smaller schools may have more restricted offerings. Because of the more stringent demands on students in the twenty-first century, many do not have the time or opportunity to take and participate in elective courses. This is especially true of high school students who are taking preparatory courses for college (Black, 1995; Kirschenbaum, 1969).

Elective courses that are available must generally be approved by state boards of education, state departments of education, and/or state superintendents. States have cut elective courses that fall outside the scope of core academic requirements. When there is a need for budget restrictions in schools, elective courses are the first to be reduced or eliminated.

Effects of High-Stakes Testing. Even when the courses are available in theory, the demands and pressures on students due to standardized testing and college preparation sometimes prevent them from enrolling in elective courses. More and more elective courses have fallen victim to the seemingly unquenchable demands for increased staffing and finances to meet the annual academic progress mandates spelled out in federal legislation. Government and public complaints abound concerning secondary schools "wasting time" on elective courses when more time is needed on academic subjects to prepare students for standardized assessments. (Cavanagh, 2003; Cox, 1964; Editorial Projects in Education Inc., 2003; Herszenhorn, 2004; Maurice & Karr-Kidwell, 2003).

Electives Have Lower Completion Rates. In a very interesting research study, Grant (2002) found that courses that have more choice have lower completion rates. Core elective courses having more electives from which to choose have lower completion rates than those with fewer. Courses composed of core plus electives course choices have lower completion rates than "core only" courses. Courses larger in size—with more "elective" modules—have lower completion rates. And, finally, in cases where students have to choose several electives (M) from a larger number (N), the lower the value of M/N, the lower the respective completion rate (Grant, 2002).

Terms & Concepts

Advanced Elective Courses: Extended and more specialized learning activities or experiences that are typically, but not necessarily, academic in nature.

Advanced Exploratory Courses: Courses offered to learners with special interests or talents so as to provide extended and more specialized learning activities or experiences, such as advanced work in art or music.

Capstone Course: A culminating course for a particular academic program such as high school.

Co-Curricular: Compare with extra-curricular; classification and status of educational activities and experiences that accompany students' regular academic program or general curriculum and in which students choose to participate.

Core Curriculum: Also core, core studies, core components; a single set of academic courses that students are required to take.

Core Elective Courses: Courses within a general curricular area in which students are required to elect one or more classes in which to enroll and participate.

Core Plus: Curriculum that includes the core and options for students to pursue topics at a more advanced level usually at approximately the same time and location (American Association for the Advancement of Science, 2000).

Elective Courses: Optional, alternative learning experiences in the curriculum that students choose to enroll in and take.

Elective Curriculum: Optional, alternative courses outside the core curriculum that students may choose to enroll and participate in.

Exploratory Courses: Also exploratory experiences, exploratory programs; courses that introduce learners to particular areas in order to determine if they have related talent or interest.

Extra-Curricular: Compare with co-curricular; classification and status of educational activities and experiences outside the regular, general, or core curriculum in which students choose to participate.

General Education Curriculum: Broad-based, coherent, tightly structured educational program of studies in which all learners are exposed to the same general content, take the same set of required core courses, and must meet the same general competencies.

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Suggested Reading

Cavanagh, S. (2003). Voc. ed. pinched by state budgets, federal policies. Education Week, 23, 19–22. Retrieved October 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/ login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11379519&site=ehost-live

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Major, M. L. (2013). How they decide: A case study examining the decision-making process for keeping or cutting music in a K-12 public school district. Journal of Research in Music Education, 61, 5–25. Retrieved December 6, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=t rue&db=ehh&AN=86152704&site=ehost-live

Sparks, R. W. (2007). An interview with Kevin T.: Superstar. Intervention in School & Clinic, 42, 188–190. Retrieved October 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost. com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23438020&site=ehost-live