Elementary Education

As of 2008, there were approximately 36 million children enrolled in publicly funded elementary schools across America. Elementary education is the formal grouping of grade levels for pre-kindergarten through 5th grade. Students usually enter Pre-Kindergarten at age 4 and if they remain on track, they enter the 5th grade at age 10 or 11. This early learning period for students is critical in the establishment of early learning habits, a solid foundation of basic skills, and positive attitudes toward lifetime learning. This article addresses the history of elementary education, offers a general overview of elementary education, and explains the role and training of the elementary teacher.

Keywords Achievement Levels; Alternative Certification; Elementary School; Highly Qualified; Inclusion; Phonics; Teacher Certification; Whole Language

Overview

History of Elementary Education

Since the first settlers landed on American soil, education has played a role in American history. Colonial children either received their instruction at home or in a small community school and there is hefty documentation of Colonial settlers even attempting to school Native American children (Nance, 2007). The focus of this early instruction centered on teaching children to read and write; arithmetic was also included. Most importantly, schooling became a priority of our nation from its birth and has been a national topic ever since.

Colonial schools were characterized by strict behavioral standards for the teachers and students. For most students, the church sponsored the education of the family and strongly influenced the values, beliefs and cultural attitudes that the students learned (Woytanowitz, 1976). Students were required to learn to read, compute mathematics, and demonstrate basic problem-solving through logic and reasoning. Their instructional supplies were limited, and a library of books was a rarity. Yet, it was believed by government leaders, church leaders, and parents that young children needed to learn to read so schools were an important aspect of colonial life for elementary aged students. As settlers moved from the east coast to the west, schooling made the trip with them. Most of this schooling was conducted by a parent (generally a female) in the traveling/settling group. Schooling was limited by insufficient supplies, the need for children to hunt and farm with their parents, and the short amount of time available for studies.

The first tax-payer funded public school was located in Dedham, Massachusetts, and which launched the concept of publicly funded schools throughout the colonial states. Many factors such as war, diseases, agriculture seasons, and slavery had enormous impacts on early schools. In addition, there have been a remarkable amount of legal issues related to public education, such as the legal separation of church and state, availability to all students, educating students with disabilities, and how to educate students. The prominence of legal and governmental involvement in the operations of public schools has been one of the most dramatic influences on public schools since their inception in the early 1600's. Today, public elementary schools are very popular with at least 66% of all students attending an assigned elementary school and over 9% attending private schools. This heightens the need for a challenging curriculum, acceptable scores on national standardized tests, and exceptional teachers to offer invigorating learning opportunities.

Further Insights

Curriculum in Elementary Education

Since the introduction of elementary schools in America, common threads have been evident regarding what should be included in the curriculum for these early learners. Since the early colonial schools, emphasis has been placed on developing basic reading, writing, and mathematical skills at the elementary level. Additionally, elementary schools have given a vast amount of attention to the physical needs of young students. According to Kartal (2007), early attempts to address the cognitive, physical, social, and emotional development of young students are very important in the child's healthy development. Schools should provide students with self-sufficiency skills, a safe learning environment, proper nutritional support, and healthcare in order to help the elementary student perform better academically and be able to fit into a socially harmonious society (Carlisle & Hiebert, 2004).

Primary and lower elementary classes are usually self-contained, meaning that students remain in one classroom all day and receive academic instruction from a primary instructor. This means that elementary teachers must be able to adequately offer instruction in all content areas, including reading, Language Arts, math, science and social studies. Teachers are generally allowed the freedom to manage the instructional time for their classroom as long as they are in compliance with local and state mandates. Students in these grades who are eligible for special education, gifted, remedial, or other services receive these services as either a "pull out" model, or while in the regular classroom. As students enter the upper elementary grades, they are typically assigned to a 2 or 3 teacher team. This allows the teachers to specialize in a curriculum area, better addressing the more advanced content needs of these learners.

Phonics vs. Whole Language

Generally, the question for elementary educators has not been what to teach, rather how to teach. For instance, public schools initially taught students to read using phonics, a method of learning to read through sounding out letters and learning what the combination of letters sounds like. In the 1970's, reading education started gaining a vast amount of attention through the research efforts of prominent educators and university professors. The traditional method of teaching reading through phonics was displaced in some schools with an updated method that insisted on students being able to recognize words through repeated exposure. This was called the whole language approach to reading instruction. These "reading wars" have continued throughout the history of teaching reading to elementary students since the 1970's. Emphasis is now being placed on spelling and sentence structure due to the demands of standardized testing. Educational experts that focus on standardized test scores consistently proclaim the importance of age-appropriate level reading skills for all students. It is suggested that students be able to read or master basic decoding skills by the time they complete kindergarten, so that they can improve their comprehension skills throughout their elementary years.

Mathematics Instruction

Curriculum changes have occurred in other academic subjects. Math has flip-flopped from traditional arithmetic to "new math" which relies on the development of problem-solving skills and concept application to resolve mathematical problems. Some educators strongly support the idea that elementary students should learn how to "process" problems, avoiding rote memorization, while others teach traditional facts, such as multiplication tables and long division. One great influence in math instruction has been computer-based instruction. Many computer programs are used to reinforce learned skills, others assess the students' present level of performance and then offer instruction from that point, and others serve as test readiness programs, placing emphasis on math concepts that will included in assessment.

A study comparing new primary mathematics curriculum to traditional methodologies found that the perception of teachers was that the newer curriculum was more effective than traditional methods. But the evaluation of student performance in this study did not support this perception (Gomleksiz, 2007). This study simply added to the controversy over which instructional methodologies are more effective as related to student achievement.

With recent importance placed on math performance on standardized tests, math instruction is reverting to ensuring that students meet the basic skills as indicated on the mathematical standards for their grade level. This means that teachers are generally combining the more recent methodologies with traditional ones in order to find the strategy that best helps students master math standards.

Art, Music & Physical Education

Since the 1960's there has been constant issues related to art, music, and physical education instruction at the primary and elementary levels. Many argue that funding should not be spent on activities other than academic areas, such as reading, social studies, science and math. Others argue that instruction in fine arts and physical education are vital supplements to academic subjects and help students better master academic areas. The amount of physical education and art instruction vary in different schools and is based on the standards established by local boards of education and state departments of education. This time is constantly challenged due to the marginalization of subjects such as art and music, because of the elimination of these subjects from major accountability measures, such as standardized tests. Art education is generally one of the first areas dropped as schools focus on core subjects due to having to meet the demands of No Child Left Behind mandates. Those in favor of art and music education maintain that it provides students with a better understanding of themselves and others, plays a fundamental role in communication with the roots of our distant past, and promotes brain growth and self-discipline (Delta Kappa Gamma, 2007).

Student/Teacher Ratio

Another prevalent issue in elementary education is the identification of the most effective student/teacher ratio per grade level. Most primary classes are limited to less than 20 students with one certified teacher and a paraprofessional. Elementary classes usually have less than 30 students with a certified teacher. Many educational researchers and experts believe that student achievement is directly related to the amount of individualized instruction they receive from their primary instruction and that lower student/teacher ratios are better for academic success. A research study conducted in 2001 found evidence that smaller classes are related to higher reading scores but are not related to mathematics scores. But of 277 research studies related to the relationship between class size and student achievement, 14% found that the relationship was significant leaving the remaining 72% to determine that the relationship is insignificant. The results about this topic are mixed at best (Hanushek, 2001 as cited in Borland, Howsen, & Trawick, 2005). Despite this, in most public school settings, student/teacher ratios are determined by the mandates established by the State Department of Education. States usually base instructional funding upon student enrollment that creates a formula for the maximum number of students in a class. Due to the effects of the Great Recession, class sizes have increased since 2008, as several states have relaxed their requirements (Science and Children, 2011).

Undoubtedly the most profound issue influencing primary and elementary education in today's society is standardized testing. These "high stakes" tests have placed incredible pressure on school districts, local schools, teachers and students. The importance of standardized tests, like the Iowa Test of Basic Skills or even state required criterion referenced tests, have become the dominant topic since the adoption of the federal legislation, No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB). This legislation attempted to improve the academic standards for all students in all American schools and standardized test scores are to serve as the primary evaluation tool for measuring student achievement. In elementary schools, students in grades K-3 participate in standardized testing, but tests facing students in the 4th grade are the most stress-producing. At this level, students who do not perform at a designated level on standardized tests in reading and/or math are not promoted. This has turned into a high-pressure testing situation for school personnel, students and teachers alike. The NCLB act has been subject to much controversy and criticism since its initiation. In 2011, President Barack Obama introduced a flexibility package that allows states to seek exceptions from some of the requirements in the act. States can be granted this relief if they develop comprehensive education reforms designed to improve educational outcomes (ED Review, 2011).

The content areas of most standardized tests used to measure academic achievement at the elementary level are: reading, math, language arts, social studies and science. Of these categories, math and reading receive the most attention. Therefore, most curriculum decisions in public elementary schools in the United States are based upon the testing content areas and the test scores for students in the previous year. Scores are frequently used as an individualized education plan for every student, since they indicate the students' academic strengths and weaknesses. This allows teachers and parents to offer individualized assistance to students in the areas in which they need to demonstrate academic growth and allows schools to place students into academic learning groups according to the skills needing remediation or enrichment. Additionally, students with learning disabilities or other exceptionalities are generally expected to participate in standardized testing and their scores are included in the school's testing report. To many, this is detrimental to the academic status of the school as presented to educational officials and the public. To others, this is the appropriate motivation for those students to improve their academic accomplishments despite the additional hurdles (disabilities or exceptionalities) they must overcome.

Elementary Teacher Certification

The supply of elementary teachers currently is higher than the demand in some states, and this problem is estimated to get worse. This is attributed primarily to the failure of teacher colleges to cap the number of entrants. In other states, there is a lack of comparable data. This has led some to call for an improvement and extension of teacher education. Others say that the overproduction is good, because it means school districts have more options in who to hire. Some fields, such as special education, are still in need of highly qualified teachers. In addition, some districts are struggling to find enough teachers, especially in rural areas (Sawchuk, 2013).

Teacher certification for primary and elementary schools has historically followed a general course of study. Most teacher education programs consist of a general curriculum of introductory collegiate courses such as English, Speech, Algebra, Biology, Chemistry, Physical Education, Music, Behavioral Sciences, and History. Future elementary teachers concentrate in teaching methodologies for each of the primary content areas to be taught: Language Arts, Reading, Mathematics, Science, and Social Studies. They also must complete courses that are related to general education topics such as Educational Psychology, the Sociology of Schools, Learning styles and best practices, and Foundations in Education. Elementary education majors also must complete a set number of practicum experiences in the schools and a student teaching experience. Generally, most colleges of education require that elementary education majors concentrate in two specific content areas, such as reading and math, math and science, etc., and take additional methodology and content courses in their chosen specialization.

Viewpoints

Alternative Certification

Although traditional certification is an admirable manner of entering a teaching career, many candidates are now seeking alternative certification routes. Prior to 1990, very few states offered alternative certification programs for allowing nontraditional collegiate students to enter the teaching profession. In the following years, most states allowed these programs due to the need for highly qualified teachers. In fact, in 1983 there were only 12 alternative certification programs in the United States compared to 485 in 2007 (Honawar, 2007). There are presently two types of alternative certification programs. The first are programs managed by agencies that are not affiliated with colleges or universities. These are for-profit agencies, state sponsored organizations, or programs sponsored by a school district that allows teachers to work while earning certification. The second type of certification programs are those that are sponsored by universities or colleges. These are online programs, programs that compact certification requirements into a year-long course, or allow content-related courses to substitute for education courses and student teaching experiences making in-field experience the primary training ground for the new teacher.

There are various stances on alternative certification programs. Due to the vast number of shortages of highly qualified teachers in many content areas, school districts are forced to use alternative certification programs in order to simply have enough teachers to fill classrooms. Many states are implementing incentive programs to lure people into teaching, particularly in those subjects and schools that are difficult to staff (Boyd, Goldhaber, Lankford, & Wyckoff, 2007). These areas are: Special Education, Mathematics, Science, and students with Limited English Proficiency. A 2006 study found that teachers who entered the profession from alternative certification programs could produce student outcomes equal to or greater than those licensed via traditional routes (Honawar, 2007).

The opponents to alternative certification programs for teachers have been very vocal. Many educators that have earned certification through traditional programs feel strongly that teachers who gain experience in the classroom are using the students as their learning objects and are deterring the academic progress of students (Boyd, Godhaber, Lankford & Wyckoff, 2007). According to Jacobson (2006), students in California's lowest-achieving schools are more likely to have the least-prepared teachers. Yet, alternative certification programs do put a teacher in every classroom with the hope that they will receive assistance from their local school administrators, peer teachers, and mentors in order to appropriately offer their students instruction. Some have claimed that alternative certification programs are "fly by night operations" that have inadequately prepared teachers to enter the classroom. Honawar (2007) reported that during the 2004-05 year, approximately 50,000 teachers entered the field through alternative routes, making up about one-third of all new teachers hired that year.

Conclusion

Elementary and primary schools are complex and vital learning institutions in our nation. The demands of teachers to meet the changing needs of elementary aged students are immense and the requirement of schools to meet the rigorous academic needs of these young students is equally intense. The most profound issue presently dominating elementary education is the accountability standards mandated by NCLB. This legislation has attempted to equalize educational opportunities for elementary students in all American public schools and has dramatically altered the curriculum focus of all elementary schools. With the population of elementary schools consistently increasing, the need for teachers is growing. However, the number of people being prepared to enter the classroom has declined. This has caused the emergence of alternative certification programs that are used to place teachers into classrooms with compact training programs.

Terms & Concepts

Achievement Levels: what students should know and be able to do at each grade level.

Alternative Certification: acquiring teaching certification through nontraditional methods. Alternative certification programs can be affiliated with a college or university or a private agency. Some school districts have even been given the authority to operate alternative certification programs for persons agreeing to teach in their school district.

Highly Qualified: a level of teacher certification that indicates that a person has demonstrated mastery of the content area in which they are instructing.

Inclusion: a method of delivery generally adapted by Special Education programs that offers individualized assistance to students while they are in a regular education classroom setting.

Phonics: a traditional approach to reading that teaches students to decode the combination of letters that make up words.

Teacher Certification: proof of possession of the basic skills needed to work as a teacher in a public school; this can be acquired through traditional or alternative certification programs.

Whole Language: a method of teaching reading that focuses on word recognition and meaning-oriented approach to mastering words.

Bibliography

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Suggested Reading

Brassell, D. (2007). Inspiring young scientists with great books. Reading Teacher, 60, 336-342. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database, Educational Research Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=23361090&site=lrc-live

Harrington, B., & Pavel (Chixapkaid), D. (2013). Using Indigenous Educational Research to Transform Mainstream Education: A Guide for P-12 School Leaders. American Journal Of Education, 119, 487-511. Retrieved October 27, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89394428

van Vleet, C. (2006) "We're writer's, too!" Engaging younger students in the writing process. Library Media Connection, 24, 42-43. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database, Educational Research Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=20301947&site=lrc-live

Williams, N., & Bauer, P. (2006). Pathways to affective accountability: Selecting, locating, & using children's books in elementary school classrooms. Reading Teacher, 60 , 14-22. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database, Educational Research Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=lfh&AN=22519884&site=lrc-live