Emergent Literacy

The concept of emergent literacy refers to the process through which a child develops an understanding of the functions of language, symbols and print. This process is based on meaningful experiences and interactions with language that begin at birth and continue throughout the conventional literacy phase that is usually achieved early in elementary school. Emergent literacy theory assumes that children acquire knowledge of language, reading and writing before they enter school. This knowledge includes sound/letter awareness, letter knowledge, phonological awareness, awareness of the concept and functions of print and the recognition of text structures.

Keywords Alphabetic Phase; Conventional Literacy; Conventions of Print; Early Childhood Education; Early Literacy; Emergent Literacy; Emergent Reading; Emergent Writing; Functions of Print; Graphemes; Invented Spelling; Language-Rich Environment; Letter Knowledge (Letter Recognition); Literacy; Phonemes; Phonemic Awareness; Phonological Awareness; Purpose of Print; Reading; Reading Readiness; Symbolic Tools

Overview

The concept of emergent literacy refers to the process through which a child develops an understanding of the functions of language, symbols and print. This process is based on meaningful experiences and interactions with language that begin at birth and continue throughout the conventional literacy phase that is usually achieved early in elementary school. Emergent literacy theory assumes that children acquire knowledge of language, reading and writing before they enter school.

Emergent literacy is considered to be on the continuum of literacy achievement and is achieved prior to conventional literacy (transitional reader) and fluency (Johnson, 1999). According to Gunn, Simmons and Kameenui (1995), it "differs from conventional literacy as it examines the range of settings and experiences that support literacy, the role of the child's contributions (i.e., individual construction), and the relation between individual literacy outcomes and the diverse experiences that precede those outcomes" (p. 2).

The term emergent literacy has been broadened to include the development of reading, writing, speaking, listening, viewing and thinking skills. Practical examples of emergent literacy include:

• A child holding a copy of a picture book and telling a story (related or unrelated to the pictures in the book);

• A child holding and turning the pages of "the three little pigs" even though she is reciting the story of "little red riding hood;"

• A child drawing pictures of a trip to the zoo that he took recently with his family;

• A child rhyming words;

• A child pointing to a picture of a cow when asked, "where is the cow?"

Emergent literacy theory involves a number of cognitive processes, including both reading and writing. Hence, it must be evaluated in terms of the developmental processes put forth by noted authorities Piaget and Vygotsky. As children experience literacy and engage in structured and incidental literacy activities, they devise their own ideas about literacy, which are consistent with Piaget's. As emergent literacy theory and assessment is also founded upon the observation of specific behaviors in children that have been modeled by teachers, parents and other adults, it is also consistent with the findings of Vygotsky (Johnson & Sulzby, 2001).

The concept of emergent literacy and its importance to early childhood development and later learning informs the curriculum in most early childhood education programs. The International Reading Association and the National Association for the Education of Young Children (1998) state that the years between birth and age 8 are the most critical time for literacy development. There is increasing evidence that the skills developed in early childhood and preschool impact success in elementary school. Both large national and small local studies have revealed that the cognitive skills of preschool-aged children are connected to their ability to become successful readers in kindergarten and first grade (Molfese, Modglin, Beswick, Neamon, Berg, Berg, & Molnar, 2006). Providing an experience- and language-rich environment that fosters the development of these comprehensive literacy skills is important to ensure that children achieve fluency in reading.

Historical Dimensions

Reading Readiness

According to noted authorities Teale and Sulzby (1986), the concept of reading readiness was first introduced in the early part of the twentieth century. Prior to that time, research on literacy development centered on learning achieved in the elementary school years. Proponents of the theory of reading readiness posited that the years prior to a child's entry into elementary school were actually an important time of preparation for the child's acquisition of literacy skills and the activities associated with developing those skills were essential to a child's later learning.

The introduction of the concept of reading readiness by the National Committee on Reading in 1925 marked the inception of two distinct views of literacy development that dominated the field of early literacy theory and research for almost 40 years (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). One view held that reading readiness was a direct result of the maturation process and had more to do with "nature" while the other believed that early experiences with language and text influenced the rate at which readiness was achieved.

Reading readiness resulting from the natural maturation process (nature) was the predominant belief from the 1920s into the 1950s. Proponents believed that the intellectual skills required for reading developed automatically as a child aged and that parents and teachers should postpone reading instruction until such time as the child had reached the appropriate age at which that maturity was achieved (Teale & Sulzby, 1986).

The idea that reading readiness was influenced more by environment and experience gained popularity during the mid-1950s. Supporters of this viewpoint believed that a child's experience with language and books had a strong influence on the child's acquisition of literacy skills and reading readiness and that those experiences could accelerate the rate at which reading readiness was achieved (Teale & Sulzby, 1986). Because of this trend in the research, parents were advised to engage children in language-rich experiences and early childhood educators introduced more structured language experiences and direct literacy instruction into their curriculum.

Emergent Literacy

The 1960s introduced numerous studies examining the reading readiness paradigm that held that children's ability to read and write developed only when formal reading instruction began in the kindergarten (Saracho & Spodek, 2006). The term emergent literacy was first introduced by New Zealand researcher Marie Clay in 1966 to describe the behaviors demonstrated by young children imitating reading and writing activities with books and writing materials (Ramsburg, 1998 as cited in Johnson, 1999). Teale and Sulzby (1986), in their acclaimed book Emergent Literacy: Writing and Reading, defined the term more broadly with their assertion that reading, writing and oral language develop interrelatedly and concurrently rather than sequentially. They explain the concept of emergent literacy to be inclusive of all of "the skills, knowledge and attitudes that are presumed to be developmental precursors to conventional forms and the environments that support these developments" (Teale & Sulzby, 1986, p. 849). Thus, the term now includes reading, writing, speaking, listening and thinking, and the assessment of emergent literacy skills includes evaluations of all aspects of early literacy.

Other Terms Used

Today, a variety of terms to describe the preschool phase of literacy development are used interchangeably:

• Emergent literacy,

• Emerging literacy,

• Emergent reading,

• Emergent writing,

• Early reading and

• Symbolic tools are among them (Roskos, Christie & Richgels, 2003).

It is widely recognized and accepted that the young child's understanding of print and symbols as a tool for making meaning and communicating combines several of the emergent literacy skills. A young child who writes a story with scribbles and drawings and then reads the story to others understands that those marks on the page have meaning. Children to whom books are read listen to stories and make meaning of them through their bodies and minds. These relationships between reading, writing, speaking and listening provide the foundation for later learning. "These relationships are situated in a broader communication network of speaking and listening, whose components work together to help the learner negotiate the world and make sense of experience" (Thelen & Smith, 1995; Lewis, 2000; Siegler, 2000 as cited in Roskos et al. 2003, p. 5).

In the United States, children are typically inundated with print prior to their entry into school. Most preschoolers are provided a wide array of language and literacy-rich experiences in their everyday living environments, which stimulates the development of their literacy skills. Saracho states, "Initial reading instruction should be provided in a natural context to help children learn to read and write in a meaningful context" (Saracho, 1993 as cited in Saracho, 2006, p. 2). This encourages children to quickly generate the prerequisite skills necessary for achievement when presented with formal reading instruction (Saracho, 2006).

Applications

Developmental Phases of Emergent Literacy

Literacy development in children begins at birth with initial exposure to oral language and continues throughout childhood. According to Johnson (1999), between the ages of 2 and 3 "children begin to produce understandable speech in response to books and the written marks they create" (p. 2).

The literacy skills of 3 through 4 year-old children develop rapidly. Children developed skills as independent "readers" by telling favorite stories by looking at the pictures on the pages. Over time, children are able to tell the story more fluently and with inflection (Johnson, 1999; Roskos et al. 2003). At this age, children also rapidly develop writing skills as they make scribbles, learn letter writing and are able to write random strings of letters to which meaning is attributed (Johnson, 1999).

Formal reading and literacy instruction is usually commenced no later than age 5 when a child enters kindergarten. While most children are still considered emergent readers when they start kindergarten, rapid development of literacy skills in conjunction with print-rich environments enables them to develop conventional reading skills and become independent readers.

Emergent readers are able to read predictable books that they have heard repeatedly or whose pictures assist with the telling of the story. They are able to exercise some control of conventional reading strategies such as concepts of print and word matching and they rely heavily on their knowledge of language (Holdaway, 1979; Pinnell, 1996b; Snow, Burns, & Griffin, 1998 as cited in Johnson, 1999). Writing skills develop quickly at this time as well. Random letter strings are used to represent words and to convey messages and invented spelling using primary phonetic sounds to represent single words or phrases emerges (Teale & Sulzby, 1986; Johnson, 1999). Most children gradually move along the continuum from emergent literacy into conventional literacy during kindergarten or first grade.

Components of Emergent Literacy

While the researchers diverge as to the categorization and naming of the major areas of emergent literacy, there is no discrepancy as to which components are important to consider. Gunn et al. (1995) state "Although these frameworks differ in structure, certain areas of literacy knowledge are common across the emergent literacy literature" (p. 2).

Roskos et al. (2003) define three content areas in early literacy:

• Oral language comprehension,

• Phonological awareness, and

• Print knowledge.

They also "identify at least one important disposition, print-motivation - the frequency of requests for shared reading and engagement in print-related activities such as pretend writing" (Senechal et al., 2001; Layzer, 2002; Neumann, 2002; Lonigan & Whitehurst, 2004 as cited in Roskos et al. 2003, p. 3). Starting Out Right: A Guide to Promoting Children's Reading Success, a report published by the National Research Council (National Research Council, 1998 as cited in Zygouris-Coe, 2001), reiterates that children who are encouraged to develop literacy skills before school tend to be more successful when formal instruction begins. The report also identifies the three areas of emergent literacy that are considered the main accomplishments for preschool children as "oral language skills and phonological awareness, motivation to learn and appreciation for literate forms and print awareness and letter knowledge" (NRC, 1998 as cited in Zygouris-Coe, 2001, p. 4).

Gunn et al. (1995), however, define five areas for consideration which are inclusive of those defined by Roskos et al. (2003):

• Awareness of print;

• Knowledge of the sound/symbol relationship;

• Structure of text;

• Phonological awareness; and

• Letter naming and writing (Van Kleeck, 1990 as cited in Gunn, et al. 1995).

It is important to note that Teale and Sulzby (1986) posited that each of these areas develops interrelatedly and concurrently with the other throughout the early childhood and kindergarten experience.

Awareness of Printed Language

Erickson and Hatton (2007) note that while literacy knowledge is inclusive of conceptual knowledge (knowledge of the acts of reading and writing) and procedural knowledge (concepts of print, letter knowledge, sound symbol relationships, etc.), they develop only when print or its equivalent is present in the environment. They assert, "unlike oral language and metalinguistic knowledge, which are often viewed as biologically primary, the development of literacy knowledge is viewed as biologically secondary and requires activities and experiences that directly involve print or its equivalent" (Geary, 1995; Sénéchal et al., 2001 as cited in Erickson & Hatton, 2007, p. 4).

Awareness of print stems from how children's experiences with reading and writing inform their understanding of the conventions of print, which in turn plays an integral part in how they learn to read. In other words, an awareness of print is simply an understanding that there are both pictures and letters on a page and that they are different. Gunn et al. (1995) discuss a model of developmental patterns wherein "awareness of print preceded graphic awareness, followed by phonemic awareness, grapheme-phoneme correspondence knowledge, and word reading" (p. 7). Children develop an understanding of the purpose of print when they realize that the print represents words and that those words convey messages and meaning. The extension of this understanding develops into knowledge of the function of print wherein a child understands that the messages conveyed can serve more than a single purpose (van Kleeck, 1990 as cited in Gunn et al. 1995). Gunn et al. (1995) explain that "While knowledge about the conventions of print enables children to understand the physical structure of written language, the conceptual knowledge that printed words convey a message [outside immediate social context] …helps young children bridge the gap between oral and written language" (p. 6).

The Sound-Symbol Relationship

The recognition of the relationship of print (written language) to speech (oral language) is an important component for early reading and writing experiences and is sometimes referred to as the sound-symbol relationship in the literature. This relationship is most often discussed in terms of phonemes (the smallest units of sounds) and graphemes (symbols that represents sounds, or phonemes). While the understanding of this relationship has been most often recognized as a developmental process rather than one of skill-building, letter knowledge and phonological awareness are prerequisite skills for a child to realize this relationship (Ehri & Sweet, 1991; van Kleeck, 1990 as cited in Gunn et al., 1995).

The understanding of the conventions of storybooks is another component of emerging literacy. Though children enter school with differing levels of exposure to books and storytelling, they tend to be aware of the schema associated with story structure from a young age. For example, children tend to recognize "Once upon a time" as the opening of a story and "happily ever after" as a closing.

Phonological Awareness

According to Gunn et al. (1995), "phonological awareness, or the ability to perceive spoken words as a sequence of sounds, is a specific auditory skill which is of crucial importance to reading ability in an alphabetic system" (p. 9). Emergent readers must learn to identify and relate the sounds of speech and the signs of letters. The emergence of phonological awareness in children is often noted when "children divide sentences into semantically meaningful word groups" (Gunn et al., 1995, p. 9). Furthermore, the ability to divide sentences into words follows, and subsequent to that is the more phonologically complicated division of words into syllables. Finally, the ability to segment words into phonemes emerges (Fox & Routh, as cited in Gunn et al. 1995).

Letter Recognition

Letter knowledge (also referred to as letter recognition) assists children in the development of effective word-recognition strategies. Along with phonological awareness, it is considered essential to initial reading acquisition. It is acquired both formally through direct instruction and incidentally through experience with language in storybooks and through viewing television shows like Sesame Street (Gunn et al., 1995). According Molfese et al. (2006), the skills associated with letter knowledge are strongly linked to the learning of reading, and letter naming in particular serves as a predictor of the development of later reading ability.

There is no consensus about whether phonological awareness precedes letter knowledge or vice versa; however, it is recognized that in conjunction they serve as the foundation for the development of conventional literacy skills (Molfese et al., 2006).

The five important areas of emergent literacy knowledge include awareness of print, understanding the relationship of print to speech, recognizing text structures, developing phonological awareness and letter naming and writing. Experiences with print (reading and writing) help young children to understand and develop these areas of knowledge. In particular, phonological awareness and letter recognition contribute to children's initial reading acquisition by assisting in the development of word recognition strategies (Gunn et al. 1995).

Further Insights

According to Roskos et al. (2003) in their report for the National Association for the Education of Young Children (NAEYC), the growing body of research related to emergent literacy can be used to facilitate effective classroom practices for literacy instruction in preschools. Researchers believe that the content of early literacy instruction should include teaching preschool children:

• What reading and writing can do;

• To name and write alphabet letters;

• To hear rhymes and sounds in words;

• To spell simple words;

• To recognize and write their own names;

• New words from stories, work and play; and

• To listen to stories for meaning (Roskos et al., 2003, p. 4).

There are numerous circumstances that promote reading and develop literacy skills in young children. Among these activities are:

• Sharing and reading books with children;

• Assisting children to own and explore books;

• Developing children's willingness to listen to stories;

• Increasing children's desire to be read to;

• Encouraging curiosity about words and letters;

• Providing opportunities for children to explore a variety of print forms;

• Teaching children to enjoy songs, poems, rhymes, jingles, books and dramatic play;

• Offering activities that develop phonological awareness;

• Providing exemplary formal instruction in the areas of reading and literacy when school begins (Roskos et al. 2003, National Research Council, 1998 as cited in Zygouris-Coe, 2003).

A literacy-rich home environment is also critical to the young child's development of reading skills. One on one dyadic interaction around the reading of stories and storybooks is particularly important to this development. It assists the child in the development of storybook literacy as well as vocabulary and syntactic knowledge, and it connects reading to a positive interaction with the adult caregiver (Hay & Fielding-Barnsley, 2007).

Viewpoints

There are still some early childhood educators who believe that reading and writing are skills that should be taught within the framework of the kindergarten and elementary school curriculum (Slegers, 1996, as cited in Johnson & Sulzby, 1999). The traditional views tend to evaluate children's reading achievement against that of adults; thus, reading acquisition is seen as a difficult and cumbersome process. The identification of words absent pictures and the spelling of words such that adults could identify are among the requisite skills that children must demonstrate in order to be considered readers and writers (Johnson & Sulzby, 1999).

Proponents of reading readiness assert that literacy skills can only be achieved at such time as children's physical and developmental maturity allows. This theory diverges from that set forth by Teale and Sulzby (1986) that suggests that literacy skills develop interrelatedly and concurrently along a continuum that leads to fluency. Within the context of the reading readiness framework, conventional literacy skills such as reading and writing should be incorporated into the kindergarten curriculum so that children are prepared for first grade.

Finally, prior to the introduction of emergent literacy theory, early childhood educators assumed that the ability to read facilitated the ability to write and that the former had to be achieved before the latter could be attempted. There are still proponents of this belief who teach children in this manner. Invented spelling is also a cause for some debate; while some teachers and schools support its use within the elementary school curriculum, other parents and educators believe that it has too great an impact upon reading and writing throughout the student's lifetime and insist that children be taught to spell correctly (Johnson & Sulzby, 1999).

Conclusion

The development of literacy skills is no longer viewed as a process governed by biological maturation. Researchers and educators recognize that early learning factors into the acquisition of early literacy skills. Emergent literacy theory asserts that children's experiences impact the acquisition of effective reading and writing skills. These skills include sound/letter awareness, letter knowledge, phonological awareness, awareness of the concept and functions of print and the recognition of text structures. The development of emergent literacy is influenced by social contexts, parental involvement and educational philosophy. Whether or not these are supportive of literacy development, children are inundated with literacy experiences that generate their emergent literacy skills. These skills develop along a continuum rather than sequentially and are interrelated. Children who are offered both informal and intentional experiences to read, write, be read to and engage in activities involving language experience greater success in school.

Terms & Concepts

Alphabetic Phase: The alphabetic phase is the developmental stage at which children connect letters to sounds in reading and spelling.

Conventional Literacy: Conventional literacy refers to the achievement of reading, writing, and spelling of text in a conventional (traditional) and recognizable manner; it follows the emergent literacy phase and precedes fluency.

Conventions of Print: Conventions of print is one of the areas of emergent literacy achieved when children demonstrate a recognition of the structure of text.

Emergent Literacy: Emergent Literacy refers to the conceptual framework through which children develop an understanding about reading, writing, speaking, listening and other non-conventional literacy behaviors. This phase begins at birth and occurs primarily throughout early childhood until children enter the conventional phase of reading and writing.

Functions of Print: Functions of print is one of the areas of emergent literacy achieved when children acquire a knowledge of how print is utilized in context (menus, magazines, grocery lists, stop signs, etc.) and as a concept (e.g., to learn, to communicate).

Graphemes: Graphemes are the symbols that represent sounds or phonemes.

Invented Spelling: Invented spelling refers to the system through which children make up a system for spelling based upon the sounds that they hear in the words.

Language-Rich Environment: A language-rich environment is one that contains print in all shapes and forms. Examples are newspapers, posters, signs, books, products with labels, poems, etc.

Letter Knowledge (Letter Recognition): Letter knowledge refers to children's ability to recognize the individual letters in the alphabet and to identify the sounds that they make. Along with phonological awareness, it is one of the most important areas of emergent literacy.

Literacy: Literacy describes the reading, writing, thinking, and listening skills that inform the ability to communicate effectively.

Phonemes: Phonemes are the smallest units of speech sound.

Phonemic Awareness: Phonemic awareness is one aspect of phonological awareness. It refers to the awareness that words are comprised of a group of individual sounds or phonemes.

Phonological Awareness: Phonological awareness is one of the most important areas of emergent literacy. It refers to the purposeful act of recognizing and manipulating sounds in language, understanding the sound structure of language and the recognition of the sounds of words in relation to their written counterparts. This includes recognition of the speech sound system that governs language.

Purpose of Print: Purpose of print is one of the areas of emergent literacy marked by the understanding that words transmit a message that is separate from pictures or oral language.

Reading: Reading is a conscious and complex process through which meaning is constructed from print based upon a set of defined skills in conjunction with the reader's experiences, background knowledge and motivation.

Bibliography

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Erickson, K. & Hatton, D. (2007). Expanding understanding of emergent literacy: Empirical support for a new framework. Journal of Visual Impairment and Blindness, 101 , 261-277. Retrieved November 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25269914& site=ehost-live

Girard, L., Girolametto, L., Weitzman, E., & Greenberg, J. (2013). Educators' literacy practices in two emergent literacy contexts. Journal of Research in Childhood Education, 27, 46-60. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=84423126&site=ehost-live

Gunn, B., Simmons, D., & Kameenui, E. (1995). Emergent literacy: Synthesis of the research (Technical Report No. 19). University of Oregon: National Center to Improve the Tools of Educators. Retrieved November 13, 2007, from http://idea.uoregon.edu/~ncite/documents/techrep/tech19.html

Hay, I & Fielding-Bamsley, R. (2007). Facilitating children's emergent literacy using shared reading: A comparison of two models. Journal of Australian Language & Literacy. 30 , 191-202. Retrieved November 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=26650221&site=ehost-live

Johnson, D. & Sulzby E. (1999). Critical issue: Addressing the literacy needs of emergent and early readers. Retrieved November 13, 2007, from http://www.ncrel.org/sdrs/areas/issues/content/cntareas/reading/li100.html

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Molfese, V., Modglin, A., Beswick, J., Neamon, J., Berg, S., Berg, C. & Molnar, A. (2006). Letter knowledge, phonological processing, and print knowledge: Skill development in nonreading preschool children. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39 , 296-305. Retrieved from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=21611943&site=ehost-live

Roskos, K., Christie, J. & Richgels, D. (2003). The essentials of early literacy instruction. Retrieved November 13, 2007, from National Association for the Education of Young Children http://www.journal.naeyc.org/btj/200303/Essentials.pdf

Saracho, O. & Spodek, B. (2006). Young children's literacy related play. Early Childhood Development & Care, 176 , 707-721. Retrieved November 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=22295465&site=ehost-live

Tan, M., & Dobbs-Oates, J. (2013). Relationship between emergent literacy and early social–emotional development in preschool children from low-income backgrounds. Early Child Development & Care, 183, 1509-1530. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91735208&site=ehost-live

Teale, W. & Sulzby, E. (1986). Emergent literacy: Writing and reading. Norwood, NJ: Ablex Publishing Corporation.

Zygouris-Coe, V. (2001). Emergent literacy. Retrieved November 13, 2007, from Florida Literacy and Reading Excellence (FlaRE) Center http://flare.ucf.edu/Research/Emergent%20Literacy.pdf

Suggested Reading

Doyle, B. & Bramwell, W. (2006). Promoting emergent literacy and social--emotional learning through dialogic reading. Reading Teacher, 59 , 554-564. Retrieved November 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=19927522&site=ehost-live

Landry, S., Swank, P., Smith, K., Assel, M. & Gunnewig, S. (2006). Enhancing early literacy skills for preschool children: Bringing a professional development model to scale. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 39 , 306-324. Retrieved November 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=21611944&site=ehost-live

Morrow, L. (1997). Literacy development in the early years: Helping children read and write. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Pence, K., Ed., (2007). Assessment in Emergent Literacy. San Diego, CA: Plural Publishing, Inc.

Soderman, A., Gregory, K & O'Neill, L. Scaffolding emergent literacy: A child-centered Approach for preschool through grade 5 (2nd Ed.) Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon.

Tolentino, E. (2013). "Put an explanation point to make it louder": Uncovering emergent writing revelations through talk. Language Arts, 91, 10-22. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90518677&site=ehost-live

Williams, A. (2007). Storytime model for large groups: Implications for early literacy. Children & Libraries: The Journal of the Association for Library Service to Children, 5 , 27-29. Retrieved November 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=26683800&site=ehost-live

Zupan, B., & Dempsey, L. (2013). Facilitating emergent literacy skills in children with hearing loss. Deafness & Education International, 15, 130-148. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90157232&site=ehost-live ..