Exercise Science

This article defines and describes the academic discipline of exercise science and its subdisciplines in the context of physical education. The subdisciplines of exercise science (sport and exercise psychology, exercise physiology, biomechanics, motor learning and development, and kinesiology) are each defined and discussed in the context of their application to the achievement of the National Standards of Physical Education. Each of these components of exercise science are essential to the professional preparation and knowledge base of physical education teachers, yet within each subdiscipline specific principles, theories, and their application are important for teaching physical education. Physical education teachers face the challenge of understanding, integrating and incorporating a wide variety of information in order to create a challenging, developmentally appropriate, safe, and effective learning environment.

Keywords Achievement Goal Theory; Biomechanics; Body Composition; Body Environmental Engineering; Ego/Performance-Orientation/Oriented/Involved; Exercise Physiology; Fundamental Motor Skills; Kinesiology; Motivation; Motivational Climate; Motor Development; Motor Learning; Muscular Strength; Muscular Endurance; National Standards; Overload; Physical Fitness; Skill Variations; Sport & Exercise Psychology

Physical Education > Exercise Science

Overview

Exercise science has been defined by the National Institute of Health (2003) as "the scientific study of human movement performed to maintain or improve physical fitness" and by the American Society of Exercise Physiologists (ASEP, 2006) as "a diverse field of study that may include sport psychologists, exercise physiologists, bio-mechanists, physical educators, and kinesiologists." Each of these areas of exercise science, with the addition of motor learning and development, inform the fundamental components of physical education teacher preparation, pedagogy, and curricula. One of these components, kinesiology, is generally defined as the study of human movement and is sometimes used interchangeably with the term 'exercise science' as it encompasses all aspects of exercise science including anatomy, physiology, psychology, motor learning and development, but also includes sociology, and the history and philosophy of sport and exercise. Each of the components of exercise science can also be specifically applied to physical education and the achievement of the National Standards of Physical Education (NASPE, 2007). The National Standards of Physical Education as set forth by NASPE provide a set of guidelines for what physical education should focus on in order to achieve a learning environment in which students are developing skills to keep them physically active over a lifetime. These six standards state that a physically educated person:

• Demonstrates competency in motor skills and movement patterns needed to perform a variety of physical activities.

• Demonstrates understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to the learning and performance of physical activities.

• Participates regularly in physical activity.

• Achieves and maintains a health-enhancing level of physical fitness.

• Exhibits responsible personal and social behavior that respects self and others in physical activity settings.

• Values physical activity for health, enjoyment, challenge, self-expression, and/or social interaction" (NASPE, 2007).

In order for physical education teachers to help their students achieve these standards, it is vital for professional preparation programs to include all aspects of exercise science. The first component of exercise science is sport and exercise psychology, which is defined as "the study of the psychological aspects of human movement" (Feltz & Kontos, 2002, p. 5). Sport psychology, within the context of physical education, involves the application of psychological principles to the learning and teaching methods that are employed in the classroom in order to help motivate students to participate in the physical activities and to utilize these skills to engage in healthy behaviors outside of the classroom setting. Four of these six National Standards can be directly encouraged by the application of sport psychology theories and techniques to teaching. These four standards address students' 1) Regular engagement in physical activity, 2) Achievement and maintenance of physical fitness that enhances health, 3) Responsible social and personal behavior, and 4) An understanding of the value of physical activity (NASPE, 2007). Motivational theory and application and character and moral development are areas of sport psychology that are applied to the physical education setting in an effort to improve and foster student development both physically and psychologically. Through the implementation of sport psychology theory and methods, teachers can foster students' motivation to maintain the activity over a lifespan.

The second component of exercise science is exercise physiology, which is defined as "the identification of physiological mechanisms underlying physical activity, the comprehensive delivery of treatment services concerned with the analysis, improvement, and maintenance of health and fitness, rehabilitation of heart disease and other chronic diseases and/or disabilities, and the professional guidance and counsel of athletes and others interested in athletics, sports training, and human adaptability to acute and chronic exercise" (ASEP, 2006). The subdiscipline of exercise physiology, within the context of physical education, involves the application of physiological principles and an understanding of how the human body responds to physical activity in order to provide activities that enhance students' fitness levels in a safe manner. Standard Four of the NASPE National Standards addresses student development and maintenance of a level of fitness that enhances health. In order for physical education teachers to achieve this standard with their students it is necessary for physical education teachers to have a solid understanding of the physiological mechanisms that underlie physical activity and how to design activities in order to challenge the students in a manner by which their bodies adapt physiologically, leading to improved cardio-vascular and muscular fitness.

The third component of exercise science is biomechanics, which is defined as the study of the anatomical principles of human movement (Merriam-Webster, 2007). Biomechanics in the field of exercise science also examines inanimate structures that influence performance, such as sports equipment, athletic footwear and playing surfaces. Within the context of physical education, biomechanics focuses on the instruction of proper technique when engaging in physical activity in an effort to avoid or reduce the chances of injury. Biomechanics is more typically applied to sport in assisting athletes to develop efficient technique or products and equipment to improve performance.

Motor learning is the study and practice of acquiring and perfecting motor skills. Motor development is the study of changes in motor behavior which reflect the interaction of maturation and the environment over a lifespan. Components of exercise science are central to physical education as they are the foundation for the learning and development of skill. Motor learning and development concepts provide the foundation of knowledge for physical education teachers in order to provide classroom experiences for the students to meet the first two NASPE National Standards for Physical Education. In order to develop students who are competent in motor skills and movement patterns, as well as developing an understanding of movement concepts, principles, strategies, and tactics as they apply to learning, physical educators need to provide developmentally appropriate learning activities for their students.

Applications

Sport & Exercise Psychology

Sport and exercise psychology, within physical education, focuses on the motivation of the students as it is a key component necessary for a student to be an active and engaged participant in physical education classes and invested in committing to a physically active lifestyle. Within the physical education context, motivation can be defined as why an individual participates in and persists at engaging in a particular activity or set of behaviors (Weiss & Ferrer-Caja, 2002). One theory of motivation that is applied and frequently explored in the physical education context is Achievement Goal Theory. Achievement Goal Theory addresses the relationship between effort and ability in an achievement setting. This relationship is specific to each individual and determines if the student adopts a task/mastery-orientation or ego/performance-orientation.

A student who is task/mastery-oriented judges his or her ability through self-referenced evaluation and feels successful when he or she puts forth more effort (Treasure & Roberts, 1995). Conversely, ego/performance-oriented students focus on ability and view success as displaying superior ability (as compared to others). The task-oriented student will choose challenging tasks and display greater persistence than those students who are ego/performance-oriented (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999; Treasure & Roberts, 1995). These differing goal orientations are attributed to individual differences and situational factors (Papaioannou, Milosis, Kospidou, & Tsigilis, 2007). The application of this theory to the classroom setting is addressed through the concept and application of motivational climate as the classroom learning environment is the situational factor affecting goal orientation. The motivational climate, as it relates to the classroom setting, can be defined as the social climate that is created by important social factors (e.g., the teacher) as it relates to perspectives on achievement (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999; Treasure & Roberts, 1995). Researchers have suggested that a student's dispositional goal orientation or goal involvement (i.e., task/mastery or ego/performance) in combination with the social climate will determine the meaning of achievement and influence behavioral patterns in the educational setting (Ntoumanis & Biddle, 1999).

Sport psychology goes beyond motivation in that its concepts and application to physical education can also be used in the development of students who meet the national standard of becoming socially and personally responsible. This opportunity for students to develop character and become socially and personally responsible through their physical education experiences can be structured and built into the class environment. Compassion, fairness, sportspersonship, and integrity are four components of character that can become a part of moral/character education through physical education. Compassion can be learned through the process of role-taking, perspective-taking, and empathy in physical education (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). Fairness can be developed through the introduction to hypothetical and actual moral dilemmas into the structured class environment (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995). Sportspersonship can also be addressed through a task-oriented motivational climate where emphasis is placed on self-reference improvement and success. Integrity is another component of character education that can be promoted through physical education. Integrity can be promoted by providing students with a sense of autonomy and opportunities to use problem-solving skills within the social context (Shields & Bredemeier, 1995).

Exercise Physiology

The application of physiological principles and the understanding of the body's response to stress is essential knowledge which enhances the students' level of physical fitness in a safe manner (Bulger, Mohr, Carson, Robert & Wiegand, 2000). Physical fitness is defined as the ability to perform physical activity (Casperson, Powell, & Christenson, 1985), while health-related fitness is a term that is used to indicate physical activity that aims to promote good health and wellness. Health-related fitness, which is applicable to the physical education setting, encompasses five components: 1) muscular strength, 2) muscular endurance, 3) aerobic endurance, 4) flexibility, and 5) body composition (Maina, Griffin, Ryan, & Schlegel Maina, 2001). Physiological mechanisms underlie the development of each of the health-related fitness components. In order to increase muscular endurance, muscular strength, and aerobic endurance, the physiological principle of overload requires that the body must undergo a level of stress that is greater than the norm in order for the body to undergo physiological adaptations that increase muscular strength and endurance.

Physical educators design class activities to challenge the students to work at a harder than normal rate or intensity so that their bodies begin to adapt physiologically to increase muscle strength, muscle resistance, aerobic endurance, and to change body composition with physical activity designed to target these fitness components. Resistance training is a method which develops muscular strength and muscular endurance as well as change body composition by progressively overloading the muscles. Aerobic endurance improves by regularly overloading the cardio-respiratory system. The body begins to make physiological adaptations and increases its capacity to engage in prolonged and more intense activity. These adaptations are evident in the increased efficiency of the heart and lungs to pump oxygen to the muscles in order for the muscles to sustain the activity level. The efficiency and any improvement in efficiency of the heart and lungs can be assessed by taking and recording heart rates and monitoring the rate of breathing. When an individual engages in regular physical activity, he or she begins to train the heart and lungs to become more efficient through the process of overloading the heart muscle and respiratory system, which results in a decreased heart rate and breathing rate.

Motor Learning & Motor Development

The application of motor learning and development concepts are important to physical educators as it is essential to understand how different factors may affect the learning process in order to make appropriate decisions (Magill, 1990). Learning occurs when the teacher creates a learning environment for the students that effectively integrates knowledge about the processes and factors of learning (Magill, 1990) and when students are engaged in developmentally appropriate activities (Goodway & Savage, 2001). This presents physical educators with the challenge of creating a learning environment and situations in which each student in the class is challenged at the appropriate level in order for motor development to occur for each student. This is essential in the development of fundamental motor skills. Fundamental motor skills are considered the building blocks of movement and include such skills as running, skipping, catching, throwing, and bending (Goodway & Savage, 2001). These fundamental skills do not simply emerge during childhood, rather the child must sequentially move through series of movements leading up to mature motor patterns and eventually skill variations and sport specific skills (Goodway & Savage, 2001).

Magill (1990) cites three different aspects of motor learning research that are applicable to the physical educator, including feedback, practice time, and teaching skill variations. Physical education teachers should have an understanding of not only what is appropriate feedback, but also how much is helpful for the student to make the changes necessary to learn the skill. It is suggested that teachers provide feedback about the critical aspect of the movement since research has indicated that correcting one aspect of a skill can oftentimes correct the remaining skill features (Magill, 1990). Another aspect of motor learning that is important to skill acquisition is time on task. For example, it is important for a teacher to know how much practice is enough in one class session (Magill, 1990). Research has indicated that short amounts of practice time per class period or practice session are effective, yet if the practice times are short then practice needs to be spread out over a longer period or more sessions (Magill, 1990). The third aspect of motor learning that is important to physical education is how a teacher should organize practice sessions to teach skill variations. It is suggested that, based on findings from research, skill variations should be taught during every class session throughout the whole instructional unit (Magill, 1990). The physical educator must understand these concepts of motor learning that are then complemented by their understanding of motor development. Both motor learning and motor development must be considered when planning class activities and units.

Environmental engineering, which is defined as "designing environments to provide individualized motor development" (p.12), is an important strategy to consider when teaching fundamental motor skills. The environment in which a motor skill is practiced is an important piece of the development of motor skills. Physical education teachers are faced with the challenge of having students in the same class who are not on the same developmental level. This could be due to previous practice and experience with a particular motor skill or gender of the student. In order to provide skill practice sessions that are developmentally appropriate, the teacher must provide students with skill variations, opportunities to assess themselves and choose their task, and provide the appropriate amount of time on the tasks. This may include, for example, allowing students to have multiple practice stations in the class, a choice in how difficult the task is, and the amount of time they would feel is necessary to practice a skill. These choices provide students an opportunity to take responsibility for their learning and have a sense of autonomy over that process, as well as learn in an environment that allows them to practice at a level that is appropriate for their personal level of development.

Exercise science is a broad field that includes several subdisciplines that are important for the physical educator to understand in order to provide physical education curricula that can be successful in achieving the National Standards of Physical Education. The challenge for physical educators and those responsible for their professional preparation is how to successfully integrate each of these subdisciplines in a manner that is appropriate and effective for aspiring physical educators in order for them to apply the multitude of scientific principles to their physical education classroom.

Terms & Concepts

Achievement Goal Theory: A theory of motivation that considers the individual's concept of ability as well as personal and situational factors that influences the meaning that is attached to successful or unsuccessful experiences.

Biomechanics: The study of the anatomical principles of human movement.

Body Composition: Proportion of lean muscle mass to fat mass.

Ego/Performance-Orientation/Oriented/Involved: Goal orientation that is centered on performance, other-reference assessment of ability, and competitive-based rewards.

Exercise Physiology: "The identification of physiological mechanisms underlying physical activity, the comprehensive delivery of treatment services concerned with the analysis, improvement, and maintenance of health and fitness, rehabilitation of heart disease and other chronic diseases and/or disabilities, and the professional guidance and counsel of athletes and others interested in athletics, sports training, and human adaptability to acute and chronic exercise" (ASEP, 2006).

Fundamental Motor Skills: Motor skills that are the building blocks of movement, including, for example, skipping, running, catching, throwing, bending and swaying.

Kinesiology: The scientific study of human movement.

Motivation: Choice, effort and persistence to engage in a particular activity or task.

Motivational Climate: The psychological climate in a learning environment that addresses what goal-reward structure (i.e., mastery goals-individual rewards or performance goals-competitive rewards) is emphasized.

Motor Development: The study of changes in motor behavior which reflects the interaction of maturation and the environment.

Motor Learning: The study of practice in acquiring and perfecting motor skills

Muscular Strength: The force that a muscle can produce or exert in a maximal effort one time, in other words, the greatest amount of weight or resistance a muscle can move or lift for one repetition only (Maina et al., 2001). This measure of strength is also known as the "one rep max" or 1 RM.

Muscular Endurance: The ability for a muscle group to perform, or contract, repeatedly at resistance below the maximum resistance the muscle can move (Maina et al., 2001).

National Standards: Content standards for physical education curricula set forth by the National Association of Sport and Physical Education (NASPE).

Overload: The body must undergo a level of stress that is greater than the norm in order for the body to undergo physiological adaptations that increase muscular strength, muscular endurance, and aerobic endurance.

Physical fitness: The ability to perform physical activity.

Skill Variations: "Different movement patterns or action characteristics that can be produced from the same movement pattern" (Magill, 1990, p. 131).

Sport & Exercise Psychology: "The study of the psychological aspects of human movement" (Feltz & Kontos, 2002, p. 5).

Task/Mastery-Orientation/Oriented/Involved: Goal orientation that is centered on learning, self-referenced assessment of ability, and individual-based rewards.

Bibliography

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Goodway, J. D. & Savage, H. (2001, March). Environmental engineering in elementary physical education. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 12 , 12-14. Retrieved April 21, 2007 from EBSCO online database SPORTDiscuss with Full Text.

Graser, S., Sampson, B. B., Pennington, T. R., & Prusak, K. A. (2011). Children's perceptions of fitness self-testing, the purpose of fitness testing, and personal health. Physical Educator, 68, 175-187. Retrieved December 19 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=72260562&site=ehost-live

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Papaionnou, A. G., Milosis, D., Kosmidou, E., Tsigilis, N. (2007). Motivational climate and achievement goals at the situational level of generality. Journal of Applied Sport Psychology, 19 , 16-37.

Santiago, J. A., Disch, J. G., & Morales, J. (2012). Elementary physical education teachers' content knowledge of physical activity and health-related fitness. Physical Educator, 69, 395-412. Retrieved December 18 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90037805&site=ehost-live

Shields, D. L. & Bredemeier, B. J. (1995). Character development and physical activity. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

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Treasure, D. C. & Roberts, G. C. (1995). Applications of achievement goal theory to physical education: Implications for enhancing motivation. QUEST, 47 , 475-489. Retrieved

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Weiss, M. R. & Ferrer-Caja, E. (2002). Motivational orientations in sport behavior. In T. Horn (Ed.), Advances in sport psychology (pp. 101-184). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Suggested Reading

Ames, C. (1992). Classrooms: Goals, structures, and student motivation. Journal of Educational Psychology, 84, 261-271.

Greer, F. & Gilbert, J. N. (2006). Standards-based activities for elementary physical education. Teaching Elementary Physical Education, 17 , 18-24. Retrieved April 9, 2007 from EBSCO online database SPORTDiscuss with Full Text. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=s3h&AN=20195072&site=ehost-live

Hopple, C. J. (1995). Teaching for outcomes in elementary physical education: A guide for curriculum and assessment. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Rink, J., French, K., Werner, P, Lynn, S., & Mays, A. (1999). The influence of content development on the effectiveness of instruction. Journal of Teaching Physical Education, 11, 139-149.

Siedentop, D. (1996). Sport education: Quality PE through positive sport experiences. Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Silverman, S. J. & Ennis, C. D. (Eds.) (2003). Student learning in physical education: Applying research to enhance instruction (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human Kinetics.

Wallhead, T. L. & Buckworth, J. (2004). The role of physical education in the promotion of youth physical activity. QUEST, 56 , 285-301. Retrieved April 9, 2007 from EBSCO online database SPORTDiscuss with Full Text.