Gender Issues in Physical Education

Low levels of physical activity among young women raises concerns about the negative impact on physical and mental health. The ways girls approach physical education (PE) classes and physical activity are related to perceptions of gender differences and teacher attitudes on coeducational PE classes. Alternatives to competitive sports that have helped to raise the interest of girls in both PE classes and in after-school and extracurricular programs.

In 1972, as the women's movement gained force in the United States, Congress passed the Education Amendments. Title IX of those amendments specified that, "No person in the United States shall, on the basis of sex, be excluded from participation in, be denied the benefits of, or be subjected to discrimination under any education program or activity receiving Federal financial assistance" (Office for Civil Rights, 2012). From the beginning, Title IX was interpreted to mean that PE classes should become coeducational. In 2006, as concern mounted over low levels of female participation in PE, the administration of George W. Bush modified that interpretation, giving schools more leeway to establish single-gender classes or single-gender groupings within coeducational classes. Schools are still required to issue biennial reports on the status of gender equality.

Despite significant changes in approaches to female physical activity over the course of history and despite perceptions that barriers to full female participation were removed with the passage of Title IX, PE classes tend to highlight gender differences, and countries throughout the world are dealing with low levels of physical activity of young females in relation to that of males. As girls age, their level of physical activity continues to decline, and females may take PE classes only one out of four years in high school. In 1990, the United States National Risk Behavior Survey looked at 11,000 American students to determine how many students were engaging in at least twenty minutes a day of vigorous physical activity at least three days a week, revealing that 31 percent of girls in the ninth grade did so. By the twelfth grade, however, the level of physical activity had dropped to 17 percent. Research continues to demonstrate that girls perform better in PE classes when they are given options beyond those of traditional competitive sports.

Even as infants, girls and boys are socialized differently and are encouraged to engage in different forms of play. Those differences may range from the rough-and-tumble play used with male infants to fathers encouraging sons to play football and shoot hoops. At the same time, girls are frequently brought up to value delicacy and are encouraged to engage in more sedentary activities. From a young age, girls are socialized into placing an emphasis on what feminists have identified as the "Barbie doll syndrome," which deals with the need to be thin, pretty, and feminine. From this viewpoint, physical activity may be seen as unfeminine because it is more closely associated with boys than with girls. Schools may exacerbate the problem by creating an environment in which girls are taught to see their bodies as in need of constant improvement (Paechter, 2013). The situation is made even more complicated by the fact that schools sometimes cut programs for male athletes to create new programs for females, leading to what has been called reverse discrimination.

Physical education first surfaced as a school subject in Europe in the early nineteenth century. By 1820, some U.S. schools had begun using the European model of PE to teach gymnastics and hygiene. It was not until after the Civil War that American schools began to introduce PE classes on a wider scale. Outside the classroom, the Young Men's Christian Association was established by George Williams in London in 1844 as a way to get young men off the street and teach them to respect God, community, and their own bodies. The first YMCA in the United States was established in the historic Old South Church in Boston in 1851, establishing an ongoing pattern for encouraging physical activity among young males.

In 1858, the Ladies Christian Association was established in New York. The familiar YWCA name was not attached to the women's organization until a Boston branch was founded in 1866. Although PE was not generally advocated for females of the period, the YWCA encouraged young women to participate in calisthenics. In Boston, pulleys were installed on the doors of boarding house rooms so that farm girls who were used to physical activity could exercise. During the Great Depression, which began in 1929 and lasted until the outbreak of World War II, many schools were forced to cut out PE classes to remain open.

Even though women finally won the right to vote with passage of the 19th Amendment in 1920, women were still viewed as ill-suited to strenuous physical activity. By World War II (1941-1945), the emphasis in PE classes was on preparing males for manual labor. The post-war years brought about major changes in education, and new laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, Title IX, and numerous court cases began to mandate sexual equality from a legal perspective. In 1973, tennis player Billie Jean King made history when she defeated Bobby Riggs in a televised match that the media dubbed the "Battle of the Sexes." The following year, King established the Women's Sports Foundation to address gender inequalities in sports.

As female teachers entered the field of PE, they often faced hostile environments (Verbrugge, 2017) as they sought to encourage girls to engage in more physical activity. Most White teachers left the field when they married (though African American women remained on the job). Historically, the field of women's PE has been dominated by unmarried females, and this fact has contributed to the homophobia prevalent in the field (Verbrugge, 2017). Because PE teachers challenged prevailing norms of femininity, they were harshly criticized (Verbrugge, 2017). As late as 2005, menstruation was considered a major drawback for female athletes and perceived as an obstacle to successful performance in PE classes.

Further Insights: 1996-2019

The Surgeon General of the United States announced in 1996 that levels of physical activity were closely related to overall health, motivating the Centers for Disease Control to create a new unit devoted to promoting physical activity among Americans. Although medical and fitness experts recommend that high school students should do some type of physical activity for at least sixty minutes a day on most days, data from various sources suggests that only 27 percent of girls actually do so. Low levels of physical activity among girls have been linked to obesity and teen pregnancy and to heart disease, some cancers, depression, and osteoporosis in adulthood. Only 55.7 percent of girls in the United States regularly attend PE classes. Illinois is the only state to mandate PE for grades K-12.

The level of physical activity is particularly low for urban and rural females and for minorities and girls from low-income families. By some estimates, Hispanic girls are three times more likely than White girls to be overweight and physically inactive. In 2002, the National Heart, Lung, and Blood Institute Growth and Health Study reported the results of a longitudinal study of 1,166 White girls and 1,213 African American girls. Researchers, who followed girls from the age of nine or ten to the ages of eighteen or nineteen, revealed that the most active girls were those from families with higher levels of education. The least active girls were those who smoked. In 2008, 84 percent of urban girls and 68 percent of rural girls took no PE classes at all (Sabo, 2008). In rural areas, schools may be faced with limited funds for building facilities and purchasing equipment, and the tendency in many areas before the passage of Title IX was to channel funds to male sports such as football because they were seen as a way to bring attention and glory to rural schools. Even in suburban areas where differences between physical activities of males and females are not as distinct as in urban and rural areas, girls have been found to enter sports at later ages than boys and to drop out of those activities at an earlier age (Sabo, 2008).

In 2004, the Women's Sports Foundation (WSF) issued a report that focused national attention on the link between levels of physical activity and women's health. That same year, the World Health Organization instituted the Global Strategy on Diet, Physical Activity, and Health. The WSF report was updated in 2009, offering new information documenting continued low levels of female physical activity, particularly among low-income individuals and minorities (Starowsy, DeSouza, and Ducher, 2009). That same year, the Barack Obama administration released the first National Physical Activity Plan for the United States.

Researchers have presented overwhelming evidence that physical activity in adolescence is directly related to improved health in adulthood. Those benefits include a 20 percent lower chance of contracting breast cancer and a reduced risk of developing osteoporosis, high blood pressure, diabetes, depression, or anxiety. Among adolescent girls, studies have shown that those involved in athletic activities are also less likely to have unprotected sex with multiple partners, a practice that increases the likelihood of contracting HIV/AIDS or other sexually transmitted diseases. Young athletes also exhibit lower levels of stress and are less likely to attempt suicide.

In 2017, Women in Sport released their Youth Sport Trust Girls Active report, outlining the tendencies of girls and physical education. The report found that girls between eleven and eighteen exercised less regularly than boys. Only 8 percent of girls completed the recommended 60 minutes of daily physical activity, and only 16 percent of boys. To increase girls' participation, the report recommended making PE more relevant to young girls' lives and empowering them through these activities, along with several other recommendations ("Key findings from Girls," 2018).

Further Insights: Beyond 2020

One study in 2020 found circus activities—trapeze, silks, juggling—increased interest of both sexes in participating. Engagement also increased with "free play." While this study was primarily focused on young children, it may be effective in children older than ten (Bortoleto et al., 2020). This study was a grand step towards equality in PE, but gender stereotypes continued to influence PE participation (Deng, 2023). It was only in March 2023 that the UK School Sport Action Plan allowed girls to play the same sports as boys in PE for the first time ever—an exceptional triumph for girls (Gritt, 2023). Eliminating gender stereotypes and incorporating PE activities that are more inclusive are noted to likely increase participation. This was a critical goal, as the World Health Organization (WHO) reported in 2022 that 85 percent of girls globally do not get enough physical activity ("85% of adolescent girls," 2022).

Viewpoints

Girls who are involved in physical activities outside of PE classes are more likely than others to express enjoyment of PE. However, girls continue to be less inclined than boys to engage in physical activity because public areas are often taken over by boys (Paechter, 2013) and because community sports teams are still predominantly made up of boys. Despite the passage of Title IX, schools are still more likely to fund sports for boys than for girls since girls express less interest in sports. Even though that interest may be due to limited opportunities to engage in activities other than competitive sports in PE classes, as well as extracurricular and community-oriented activities, school officials use the low interest level as a rationale for not offering more opportunities for females to engage in physical activities.

Despite the ostensible commitment of governments at all levels to promoting increased physical activity among young females, gender issues have persisted in PE classes. Some teachers have attempted to level out differences between male and female students in coeducational classes by modifying the scores of female students (Murphy, 2014). For instance, girls may be graded on effort rather than successfully scoring points. Additionally, girls may suffer from the fact that many schools require that grades be based on level of participation. Some teachers divide classes into single-sex groups, particularly in the case of contact sports, to make it possible to match physical skills and ensure the safety of female students.

Girls' attitudes toward PE are influenced by several factors. One of the most important is how friends view the activity. Girls who see physical activity as socially acceptable are more likely to express enjoyment than those whose friends view it as embarrassing (Murphy, 2014). Body image is also a significant influence, and girls who are overweight are particularly reluctant to put themselves on display in front of males. Girls frequently complain that boys make comments about the size of their breasts or call attention to girls' legs or hips. A lack of enjoyment is common among girls who view the military-type exercises preferred by many PE teachers as irrelevant to their bodies and lifestyles (Olafson, 2002).

Competition also becomes a factor in coeducational classes, and girls contend that boys are more competitive than girls. Boys, on the other hand, accuse girls of not being engaged in activities in PE classes. Research reveals that boys gain specific advantages from coeducational classes because they foster confidence, promote group affiliation, and teach helping behaviors (Olafson, 2002). However, boys report that they are more likely to exhibit improved performances and try harder in single-gender classes because of the reduced risk of injuring others (Olafson, 2002). Gender attitudes toward sports may be somewhat skewed by the fact that boys tend to overestimate their interest in sports (Sabo and Veliz, 2008) while girls feel no pressure to engage personally in sports and generally shy away from competition ("85% of adolescent girls," 2022).

Experts on gender differences in PE recommend involving girls in the design of PE classes (Murphy, 2014). Research shows that females are more likely to enjoy alternate activities such as dance and drama (Paechter, 2013) to the competitive sports preferred by most males. Other options include Pilates, kickboxing, core training (Wilkinson and Bretzing, 2011), gymnastics (Hannon and Ratliffe, 2007), yoga, and spinning. In a study of 83 high school students, Wilkinson and Bretzing (2011) found that almost three out of four girls preferred fitness units to sports units, labeling fitness units helpful, fun, and varied. They also liked the fact that fitness units allowed them to be more physically active, were less demanding than competitive sports, and were easier to fit into busy schedules outside PE classes.

Girls' attitudes toward PE classes and physical activity are significantly influenced by the presence or absence of positive role models. For girls, common mentors are coaches and PE teachers. For boys, the most important influences are fathers and coaches. Within the context of PE classes, teacher attitudes are considered a major factor in girls' enjoyment. However, PE teachers, particularly male teachers, have often viewed females as problems because they are seen as physically weaker and less skillful than male students. Some researchers insist that the real problem is with curricula rather than female physical abilities (Murphy, 2014).

Girls tend to perform better in PE classes when teachers emphasize effort and participation over skill (Deng, 2023; Constantinou et al., 2009). Research has shown that teachers interact more often with female students in single-gender classes than in coeducational classes. In coeducational classes, boys may shut girls out of interactive play by not choosing them to be on their teams or refusing to pass them the ball. Contrarily, girls tend to include boys in interactive play because they value their strength.

After-school activities that emphasize physical activity are seen as a way to encourage girls to become more physically active. These programs may include such activities as traditional dance, contemporary dance forms such as hip hop or street dancing, fitness training, or yoga. Participants generally report that they are likely to keep up with such activities outside class, and parents tend to be supportive of such activities.

Terms & Concepts

Barbie Doll Syndrome: Feminist term for the tendency of young girls to attempt to force their bodies into the idealized form of their Barbie dolls.

Civil Rights Act of 1964: Major civil rights bill first suggested by President John Kennedy and steered through Congress by Lyndon Johnson that was designed to end discrimination on the basis of race, ethnicity, and national origin. Supporters of women's rights managed to get sex added to the protected classes, and the bill somewhat surprisingly passed with that addition.

Gender Socialization: The conscious and unconscious process that begins in infancy of forming gender roles according to attitudes portrayed by social influences such as family, peers, schools, and media.

GoGirlGo: Project created by the Women's Sports Foundation and their partners to work with schools, churches, and communities to develop programs designed to promote physical activity among elementary, middle, and high school girls as a means of improving health indicators.

Osteoporosis: Medical condition involving thinning of the bones, which results from the reduction of bone mass in response to aging or as a byproduct of taking steroids or steroid drugs.

Title IX: The section of the Education Amendments of 1972 that bans sexual discrimination in any programs receiving federal funds. Title IX led to the widespread establishment of coeducational PE classes.

Bibliography

Bortoleto, M. A., Ontañón Barragán, T., Cardani, L. T., Funk, A., Melo, C. C., & Santos Rodrigues, G. (2020). Gender participation and preference: A multiple-case study on teaching circus at PE in Brazilians schools. Gender Participation and Preference: A Multiple-Case Study on Teaching Circus at PE in Brazilians Schools, 5. https://doi.org/10.3389/feduc.2020.572577

Constantinou, P., Manson, M., & Silverman, S. (2009). Female students' perceptions about gender-role stereotypes and their influence on attitude toward physical education. Physical Educator, 66, 85-96. Retrieved January 18, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=40304995&site=ehost-live

Deng, Y. (2023). Influence of gender stereotype on participation in Physical Education Class of high school students. Journal of Education, Humanities and Social Sciences, 8, 600–606. https://doi.org/10.54097/ehss.v8i.4315

85% of adolescent girls don’t do enough physical activity: New who study calls for action. World Health Organization. (2022, March 4). https://www.who.int/europe/news/item/04-03-2022-85-of-adolescent-girls-don-t-do-enough-physical-activity-new-who-study-calls-for-action

Gritt, Emma. (2023, March 08). Government announces huge change to schools' PE curriculums - and it's great news for girls. Women's Health. Retrieved June 10, 2023, from https://www.womenshealthmag.com/uk/fitness/a43246294/school-sport-action-plan

Hannon, J.C., & Ratliffe, T. (2007). Opportunities to participate and teacher interactions in coed versus single-gender physical education settings. Physical Educator, 64, 11-20. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24808523&site=ehost-live

Martins, J., Marques, A., Peralta, M., Henriques-Neto, D., Costa, J., Onofre, M., & González Valeiro, M. (2020). A Comparative Study of Participation in Physical Education Classes among 170,347 Adolescents from 54 Low-, Middle-, and High-Income Countries. International journal of environmental research and public health, 17(15), 5579. https://doi.org/10.3390/ijerph17155579

Murphy, B., Dionigi, R., & Litchfield, C. (2014). Physical education and female participation: A case study of teachers' perspective and strategies. Issues in Educational Research, 24, 241-259. Retrieved January 18, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=100330149&site=ehost-live

Office for Civil Rights, United States Department of Education. (2012). Title IX, Education Amendments of 1972. Retrieved January 20, 2015, from http://www2.ed.gov/about/offices/list/ocr/docs/tix%5Fdis.html

Olafson, L. (2002). I hate physical education: Adolescent girls talk about physical education. The Physical Educator, 59, 67-74. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=7022952&site=ehost-live

Paechter, C. (2013). Girls and their bodies: Approaching a more emancipatory physical education. Pedagogy, Culture and Society, 21, 261-277. Retrieved January 18, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=88786202&site=ehost-live

Sabo, D., & Veliz, P. (2008). Go out and play: Youth sports in America. Women's Sports Foundation. Retrieved from June 18, 2023, from http://www.womenssportsfoundation.org/wp-content/uploads/2016/08/go‗out‗and‗play‗exec.pdf

Staurowsky, E. J., DeSouza, M. J., & Ducher, G. (2009). Her life depends on it II: Sport, physical activity, and the health and well-being of American girls and women: Executive Summary. Women's Sports Foundation.

Verbrugge, M.H. (2017). Active bodies: A history of women's physical education in twentieth-century America. Oxford University Press.

Wallace, L., Buchan, D., & Sculthorpe, N. (2020). A comparison of activity levels of girls in single-gender and mixed-gender physical education. European Physical Education Review, 26(1), 231–240. https://doi.org/10.1177/1356336X19849456

Wilkinson, C., & Bretzing, R. (2011). High school girls' perceptions of selected fitness activities. Physical Educator, v. 68, 58-65. Retrieved from January 18, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=60801361&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Hardin, M., & Whiteside, E. E. (2009). The power of "small stories": Narratives and notions of gender equality in conversations about sport. Sociology of Sport Journal, 26, 255-276. Retrieved January 18, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=43690826&site=ehost-live

Hill, G. M., Harmon, J. C., & Knowles, C. (2012). Physical education teachers' and university teacher educators' perceptions regarding coeducational vs. single gender physical education. Physical Educator, 69, 265-288. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90037798&site=ehost-live

Rich, E., & Evans, J. (2009). Now I am nobody, see me for what I am: The paradox of performativity. Gender and Education, 21, 1-16. Retrieved March 22, 2015, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=35537736&site=ehost-live