Government Assistance for Teacher Education

Many forms of government assistance are available for the education and recruitment of new teachers. Those entering the teaching profession may be eligible for loan forgiveness or deferment, while current teachers may be eligible for incentives like merit pay. Other, special incentives programs have been created to attract and retain highly qualified and minority teachers. These programs may offer partial or full tuition re-imbursement, or partial or full reimbursement of examination fees. While states, school districts, and schools may struggle to meet the mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, great opportunities are available to anyone interested in the teaching profession.

Keywords Adequate Yearly Progress; Corporation for National and Community Service; Highly Qualified Teacher; Incentives; Loan Deferment; Loan Forgiveness; Merit Pay; Minority Teacher; No Child Left Behind Act of 2001; Praxis

Teacher Education > Government Assistance for Teacher Education

Overview

Education is a big business in the United States. According to the U.S. Department of Education, an estimated $1 trillion will be spent on education in the U.S. during the 2007-2008 school year. Of the amount that will be spent “at the elementary and secondary levels, over 92% of the funds will come from non-federal sources” (U.S. Department of Education, 2007a, ¶ 1). With minimal federal support, it is up to states and individual school districts to figure out how to attract and retain qualified instructors with the funds they have or by tapping into private sources.

With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001, states and school districts have tried to find ways to ensure that their instructors meet the Act's high requirements for teacher and recruit instructors in two of the more difficult-to-staff subjects: science and mathematics. State efforts include offering incentives like signing bonuses, and introducing more professional development programs to boost existing instructors' skills to meet the mandates of No Child Left Behind. As of 2006, at least 31 states had financial incentive programs intended to address subject shortages, and 17 states offered monetary incentives in an effort to recruit instructors for hard-to-staff schools (Cavanagh, 2006).

Federal Loan Forgiveness Programs

The federal government became involved in education in a comprehensive way as a result of the Cold War. In order to ensure a supply of highly trained, American workers ready to compete with the Soviet Union in scientific and technical fields, Congress passed the National Defense Education Act in 1958. Part of this act “included support for loans to college students and the improvement of science, mathematics, and foreign language instruction in elementary and secondary schools” (U.S. Department of Education, 2007a). Currently, the federal government offers two loan cancellation/deferment options to instructors who teach in low-income areas or who choose to teach in a discipline facing an instructor shortage (Federal Student Aid, 2006a).

Federal Perkins Loan

Instructors who have a Federal Perkins Loan may be eligible for loan forgiveness if they work in a low-income “public or private nonprofit elementary or secondary school system, in a school serving students from low-income families, or work as a special education instructor” (Town Hall, 2005, p. 69). They may also be eligible for loan forgiveness if they teach mathematics, science, foreign languages, bilingual education, or any field of expertise determined by their state education agency to have a shortage of qualified teachers. In order to receive complete loan forgiveness, instructors are required to teach for five years. However, they receive incremental loan forgiveness in the following stages (Federal Student Aid, 2006b):

• 15% of the loan is cancelled after the first year of teaching.

• Another 15% of the loan is cancelled after the second year of teaching.

• 20% of the loan is cancelled after the third year of teaching.

• Another 20% of the loan is cancelled after the fourth year of teaching.

• The balance of the loan-30%-is cancelled after the fifth year of teaching.

The amount of the loan cancelled each year also includes the interest that accrued during the year. Teachers qualify for a loan deferment while they are teaching in any of the areas that qualify for loan forgiveness. Therefore, they do not have to pay anything towards their student loans if they qualify under this program (Federal Student Aid, 2006b).

Stafford Loan

Instructors who have a Stafford Loan and teach full time for five consecutive years in a low-income public or private nonprofit elementary or secondary school, or in a teacher shortage area may be eligible to have a portion of their loan forgiven.

• For teaching service that began before October 2004, this program forgives up to $5,000 if instructors taught elementary school full time and “demonstrated knowledge and teaching skills in reading, writing, mathematics, and other areas of the curriculum; or, taught full time in a secondary school in a subject area relevant to their major” (Federal Student Aid, 2006c). The program also forgives up to $17,500 for highly qualified teachers who taught mathematics or science in an eligible secondary school or who taught special education (Federal Student Aid, 2006c).

• For teaching service that began after October 2004, this program forgives up to $5,000 in loans for highly qualified instructors who taught full-time at an elementary or secondary school. The program also forgives up to $17,500 in loans for highly qualified secondary school mathematics and science instructors and for highly qualified special education instructors (Federal Student Aid, 2006c).

In August 2007, the federal government passed new legislation to improve science and mathematics education throughout the nation by using federal grant funds to enhance teacher recruitment and training. The bill is called the America COMPETES Act; COMPETES stands for America Creating Opportunities to Meaningfully Promote Excellence in Technology, Education, and Science. The law establishes several new federal mathematics and science programs and expands on programs already in existence to strengthen the quality of the nation's workforce to help it compete against international workforces. One of the programs that was expanded is the Robert Noyce Scholarship program, which, in 2007, provided $10,000 a year to students majoring in mathematics or science-related fields who agree to teach in high-need schools upon graduation. It was projected to cost $43.3 billion over three years, although much of this money was earmarked for research programs (Cavanagh & Hoff, 2007).

Merit & Incentive Pay

Merit pay gained some popularity in the 1980s when some school districts implemented programs to induce better instructor performance by offering bonuses or pay raises for teachers who do their jobs well. Those programs did not last very long, did not have the support of teachers' unions, and were considered quite controversial at the time because most relied on an administrator's judgment as to whether or not merit pay was awarded. Few studies completed to determine if merit pay effectively improved instructor performance. In the mid-2000s, Merit pay returned to the forefront with various programs throughout the country. This time, however, the U.S. Department of Education has become involved in some of these programs (Viadero, 2007).

In 2006, the U.S. Department of Education's Institute of Education Sciences awarded a five-year, $10 million grant to the National Center on Performance Incentives at Vanderbilt University to study the efficacy of merit pay. Part of the center's goal was to determine if instructors behaved differently when bonuses were available, whether student achievement improved when instructors had the opportunity to receive a bonus, and if a merit pay program could attract more instructors into the field. In one case, the grant funded a program in which instructors could earn up to $15,000 a year in bonuses over three years for gains their students made on state examinations. Beginning with the 2006-2007 school year, instructors qualified for a $5,000 bonus if their students' gains on the state examination matched gains made by the top 20% of students based on the prior year data, and instructors would receive a $10,000 bonus if their students performed at least as well as students who ranked in the top 15% based on prior year data. These programs differed from earlier renditions of merit pay programs since the bonuses were more substantial and success was determined by actual student data rather than an administrator's judgment.

The U.S. Department of Education administers the Teacher Incentive Fund. This is a discretionary grant program which, in 2006, had $99 million in funds to distribute on a discretionary/competitive basis. This program was available to local education agencies, nonprofit organizations, and state education agencies. Some of the program’s goals included:

• To improve student success by augmenting the teaching effectiveness of instructors and principals;

• Reform teacher and principal compensation systems so that they will receive additional funds and bonuses for improvements in student achievement; and

• To increase the number of effective teachers who educate low-income, minority, and disadvantaged students in subjects that are hard to find instructors for (U.S. Department of Education, 2007b).

Below are some of the programs being funded by the Teacher Incentive Fund (U.S. Department of Education, 2007c):

• $3.0 million for the first year, $14.1 million over a five-year period to provide direct compensation to teachers and principals in the Washington, DC public school system who have demonstrated their ability to improve student achievement

• $500,000 for the first year, $7.6 million over a five-year period to implement a performance-based compensation program that benefits a region of Northern New Mexico where there is extreme poverty, high concentrations of Native American and Hispanic students, and poor rural conditions

• $100,000 for the first year, $27.3 million over a five-year period to fund a Recognizing Excellence in Academic Leadership program for Chicago, Illinois public schools to drive recruitment, development, and confinement of quality staff in 40 schools that are in need

• $3.1 million for the first year, $13.8 million over a five-year period to improve Memphis, Tennessee's ability to attract, develop, support, and retain high-performing instructors towards the end of improving student academic achievement

• $7.5 million for the first year, $33.9 million over a five-year period to South Carolina to implement a performance-based compensation system to address recruitment and retention problems in 23 high-need schools by, in part, providing higher and varied bonuses for teachers, principals, and administrators; and focusing on marketing and recruiting

• $1.2 million for the first year, $5.2 million over a five-year period to expand on Alaska's performance pay initiation, which is already funded by the Alaska Legislature

The continuation of projects funded under the Teacher Incentive Fund depends upon reauthorization of the program.

Individual states also implemented incentive programs. For example, Alaska implemented an Alaska Teacher and Principal Incentive Project, which provides monetary incentives based on student achievement. This program provides $2,500-$5,500 for school-wide growth, $750-$3,000 for mathematics instructors, and $500-$2,000 for instructors accepting additional responsibilities (Center for Educator Compensation Reform, 2007a). South Dakota, in 2007, paid new instructors a $5,000 signing bonus to improve their recruitment numbers and also awarded instructors anywhere from $700 to $1,500 for meeting a variety of performance incentives, including a $1,500 award to all certified instructional staff in schools that met the No Child Left Behind Act's adequate yearly progress requirements (Center for Educator Compensation Reform, 2007b). Texas had two incentive programs. One offered a total of $10 million to instructors who decide to work in disadvantaged schools, the other provided $100 million for performance-based rewards. The money goes directly to the schools, and the schools set the criteria for determining the bonus recipients (Viadero, 2007).

Minority Teacher Recruitment

It can be difficult to recruit and retain highly qualified teachers, especially in urban schools where instructor attrition rates are the highest. School districts are becoming increasingly competitive as they strive to get and keep the best of the best. Other factors, like higher paying positions in other fields, can make recruitment and retention even more difficult. Add in the standards for attaining highly qualified teacher status under the No Child Left Behind Act provisions, and it isn't hard to see why many college students are opting for a different profession.

Currently, minority students comprise almost one third of all students, but only about 13% of teachers are minorities (Nunez & Fernandez, 2006). Minority teachers are considered important because they can serve as role models for both minority and other students; they may be better able to meet the learning needs of minority students; and, if they are bilingual, they can help English language learner students excel in school (Piercynski, Matraga & Peltier, 1997). It is also considered important that the teaching profession be representative of society so that students can become culturally competent (Holmes Group, 1986, as cited in Piercynski et al., 1997).

Several private foundations fund projects which aim to recruit, retain, and attract more minorities to the teaching profession. For example, the Tom Joyner Foundation has provided $100,000 grants to seven historically African-American colleges and universities. These grants are used offset testing fees and pay for tuition, books, and workshops for elementary and secondary school teachers and students enrolled in a school of education who are preparing for the Praxis examinations. The offer of assistance is open to currently employed instructors because many may work in the classroom under a provisional license while preparing to pass the Praxis; thus, providing additional support in the form of workshops and paying for their tuition and books may help keep them in the profession. In this instance, the institutions were chosen because the largest number of minority instructors comes from minority-serving colleges and universities. “These institutions award close to half of all bachelor's degrees in education earned by African-American and Hispanics, and about 12% of the education degrees earned by Native Americans” (Hayes, 2007, ¶ 6).

Another organization addressing recruitment and retention is the Corporation for National and Community Service program. The program provides 400 AmeriCorps Education Award slots to a teaching fellowship program that is designed to prepare teachers and other educational professionals for work in an urban, public school setting. These AmeriCorps awards provide instructors with over $9,400 that can be used toward their education expenses (Nunez & Fernandez, 2006).

Recommendations to try to increase the number of minority teachers in the field include developing programs that encourage minorities to enter education, and encouraging talented minority substitute teachers and teacher aides to become licensed instructors. By recognizing and rewarding talent that already exists in the schools and by providing appropriate assistance and incentives toward obtaining the necessary qualification, schools and school districts can take positive steps toward increasing the number of minority instructors (Piercynski et al., 1997).

The additional support, recruitment efforts, and assistance grants may be having an impact: the number of nationally certified minority teachers has risen sharply over the past several years. In 2006, the number of African American teachers who received National Board for Professional Teaching Standards certification rose 24% from 2005 figures, and the number of Hispanic teachers who received national certification rose 13% from 2005. Native American teacher figures rose by 50%, but only 69 Native American teachers were certified. Since African American, Hispanic, and Native American instructors mostly teach minority and low-income students, this means that the students who tend to need the most assistance will be taught by more highly qualified instructors (Keller, 2007).

The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, which first began certifying instructors in 1993, found that the majority of instructors seeking national certification came from the suburbs. To encourage diversity, they constructed programs that primarily help urban and rural minority candidates pay for certification, which costs $2,500. One of the grant-funded programs in place, Direct Recruitment Efforts to Attract Minorities, was created in 2003 and pays a stipend to nationally certified African American, Hispanic, and Native American instructors who act as representative for the program in low-income, high-need school districts, that are often in their own home-town locations (Keller, 2007). Sites are chosen based, in part, on

• Access to candidate support and readiness to support new candidates;

• The proportion between the number of minority teachers and the number of certified teachers; and

• The financial incentives the state or school district offers to instructors who become nationally certified (National Board for Professional Teaching Standards, n.d.).

The certification board has worked with many organizations and institutions, including states, school districts, businesses, and historically African-American colleges and universities to spread the word that minority teachers are wanted needs (Keller, 2007).

Further Insights

With the passage of the No Child Left Behind Act and its requirement for highly qualified teachers, recruitment of highly qualified teachers can be difficult, especially in high poverty urban settings. The attrition rates in urban settings are high: about 33% of new instructors quit or relocate within the first three years of teaching, and nearly 50% leave before the first five years have passed. This decline means that recruitment is practically ongoing for schools and school districts and that the neediest students rarely learn from the most highly qualified teachers (Nunez & Fernandez, 2006). Schools and school districts should have programs in place that support instructors who are new to the field and be cognizant of the challenges these instructors face. Enlisting other instructors considered to be highly qualified to act as mentors can also help with retention efforts.

The No Child Left Behind Act has brought instruction and the importance of qualified teachers to the forefront. While states, school districts, and schools may struggle to meet the mandates of the law, great opportunities are available to anyone interested in the teaching profession. Many federal, state, and privately funded programs can be used to pay for much, if not all, of an instructor's college or university training. Other programs may pay for part or all of any licensure requirements, including examination fees and test preparation courses. Students interested in majoring in education should contact their financial aid office and search online for grant opportunities. Those already in the profession should check with their school district and conduct their own research to determine which opportunities are available to them. Current teachers may find programs that will help them pay off student loans or achieve highly qualified teacher status.

Terms & Concepts

Adequate Yearly Progress: Part of the No Child Left Behind Act, adequate yearly progress refers to annual measurable objectives based on the percentage of students performing at or above proficiency.

Corporation for National and Community Service: The Corporation for National and Community Service was created in 1993 when the National and Community Service Act of 1990, a law to renew focus on encouraging volunteering in America, was amended.

Highly Qualified Teacher: According to the No Child Left Behind Act, to be designated “highly qualified,” instructors need to obtain a bachelor's degree as well as full state certification or licensure, and establish their knowledge of the subjects. Instructors who were employed prior to 2002 can use alternative criteria to meet highly qualified teacher requirements.

Loan Deferment: Loan deferment means putting off the payments required on the loan for an approved period of time. Interest may or may not accrue during the deferment period.

Merit Pay: Merit pay is the practice of awarding a monetary bonus to instructors if they meet performance standards.

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001: The No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 is the latest reauthorization and a major overhaul of the Elementary and Secondary Education Act of 1965, the major federal law regarding K-12 education.

Praxis: Praxis assessments are educational tests that states use as a way to measure the teaching licensing certification process. Praxis I exams evaluate the basic academic skills, while Praxis II exams assess the subject-specific academic skills and instructing ability.

Bibliography

As America COMPETES sets to expire, groups weigh in. (2013). Career & Technical Education Advisor, 9, 6. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88420266&site=ehost-live

Brown, E. (2013). Groups weigh in on America COMPETES reauth. (cover story). Education Daily, 46, 1-6. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87618967&site=ehost-live

Cavanagh, S. (2006). Math and science teachers. Education Week, 25 , 18. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20878204&site=ehost-live

Cavanagh, S. & Hoff, D. (2007). 'Competitiveness' bill to aid math, science is signed by president. Education Week, 26 , 24. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26260506&site=ehost-live

Center for Educator Compensation Reform (2007a). Alaska Teacher and Principal Incentive Project. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.cecr.ed.gov/initiatives/profiles/alaskaIncentive.cfm

Center for Educator Compensation Reform (2007a). South Dakota Incentive Fund. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.cecr.ed.gov/initiatives/profiles/2007grantees/southDakota07.cfm

Federal Student Aid (2006a). Cancellation/deferment options for teachers. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/teachercancel.jsp?tab=repaying

Federal Student Aid (2006b). Federal Perkins Loan teacher cancellation. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/cancelperk.jsp?tab=repaying

Federal Student Aid (2006c). Teacher loan forgiveness program - FFEL and direct loan programs. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://studentaid.ed.gov/PORTALSWebApp/students/english/cancelstaff.jsp?tab=repaying

Hayes, D. (2007). Providing $100K grants to seven black colleges, Tom Joyner Foundation encourages the recruitment, retention of minority teachers. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, 24 , 10. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24741417&site=ehost-live

Keller, B. (2007). More minority teachers earn national certification. Education Week, 26 , 14. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23881931&site=ehost-live

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (n.d.). Recruitment. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.nbpts.org/resources/diversity_initiatives/recruitment

Nunez, M. & Fernandez, M. (2006). Collaborative recruitment of diverse teachers for the long haul-TEAMS: Teacher Education for the Advancement of a Multicultural Society. Multicultural Education, 14 , 50-56. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24496281&site=ehost-live

Peckham, S. (2011). President signs America COMPETES reauthorization. Tech Directions, 70, 8. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59601587&site=ehost-live

Piercynski, M., Matraga, M. & Peltier, G. (1997). Legislative appropriation for minority teacher recruitment: Did it really matter? Clearing House, 70 , 205. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=936337&site=ehost-live

Town Hall/Summit. (2005, November). "Mathematics and Science Education in New Mexico." New Mexico First. Glorieta Conference Center. Retrieved October 3, 2007 from http://web.nmsu.edu/~pscott/BGFinal.pdf

U.S. Department of Education (2007a). The federal role in education. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/about/overview/fed/role.html

U.S. Department of Education (2007b). Teacher Incentive Fund. Retrieved October 3, 2007, from http://www.ed.gov/programs/teacherincentive/index.html

U.S. Department of Education (2007c). Teacher Incentive Fund Awards. Retrieved October 3, 2007 from http://www.ed.gov/programs/teacherincentive/awards.html

Viadero, D. (2007). New center asks: Does merit pay work? Education Week, 26 , 1-13. Retrieved September 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24487167&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Cockburn, A. (2003). Recruiting and Retaining Teachers: Understanding Why Teachers Teach. New York, NY: Routledge-Falmer.

Garibaldi, A. (1989). Teacher Recruitment and Retention with a Special Focus on Minority Teachers. Washington, D.C.: NEA Professional Library.

Howey, K. (2006). Recruiting, Preparing, and Retaining Teachers for Urban Schools. Washington, D.C.: American Association of Colleges for Teacher Education.

Richin, R., Banyon, R., Stein, R. & Banyon, F. (2003). Induction: Connecting Teacher Recruitment to Retention. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.