Grade Point Averages

A Grade Point Average (GPA) is a numerical representation of a student's academic performance, calculated by assigning point values to letter grades and averaging them based on the number of credits earned. Typically, high schools in the United States use a four-point scale, where an 'A' equals 4 points, while some institutions adopt a five-point scale, awarding 'A' 5 points. Cumulative GPAs serve as important indicators of students’ overall academic ability and are utilized by both high schools and colleges for assessing eligibility for advanced coursework and admissions, respectively.

Over the past few decades, GPAs for high school graduates have generally increased, a trend that raises concerns about grade inflation—where higher grades do not reflect actual increases in student achievement. The GPA system varies significantly across different schools and districts, making direct comparisons challenging. Moreover, while GPAs can predict future academic success, their reliability can differ based on the student's background and the nature of their coursework. For college admissions, GPAs are often considered alongside standardized test scores and other factors, emphasizing the importance of a rigorous high school curriculum.

Published in: 2021

By: Merritt, R. D.

Subject Terms

Grade Point Averages

Abstract

This article discusses the cumulative grade-point average or GPA, which is a criterion measure of students' overall academic performance. Cumulative GPA is also a statistically significant predictor of high school students' future performance, academic achievement, and success in postsecondary education. GPAs are used by high schools to determine students' eligibility for coursework and various incentives; colleges and universities use them to determine applicant's eligibility for admission. However, GPAs are norm-referenced within schools, and are, therefore relative measurements, the significance of which can vary across schools, districts, and states. The past twenty-five years have seen a rise in high school graduates' GPAs, though this rise has not been linked to actual achievement, leaving high schools open to charges of grade inflation.

Overview

The cumulative high school grade point average (GPA) is a measurement of students' relative academic ability and overall academic performance. GPAs are scored by assigning point values to letter grades using either a four- or five-point system. In the four point system typically used in the United States, A=4; B=3; C=2; D=1; and F=0. On the five-point scale A=5; B=4; C=3; D=2; and F=0. To calculate a GPA, the point value of each letter grade is multiplied by the number of credits earned for the respective course. These products are added, then divided by the total number of credits earned. The final quotient is then rounded off to one decimal place. On a four-point system, 4.0 is normally the highest possible GPA; on the five point system, 5.0 is normally the highest possible GPA (Gatta, 1973; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007; Woodruff & Ziomek, 2004a).

To factor in the added difficulty of advanced classes, schools may use weighted GPAs. Students taking honors classes or advanced placement classes may earn between .5 or 1.0 bonus points on their letter grades. Alternatively, weighting may subtract points for certain elective classes like physical education. Students who have plusses or minuses appended to their letter grades may also have points added or subtracted. With weighting, students can earn GPAs above 4.0 and 5.0 on the respective 4-point and 5-point grading systems. Quantitative bonus point calculations of high school GPAs are used in determining class rank for graduating seniors and can have a significant impact on college admissions (Levy & Riordan, 1994; Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 2007; Rutledge, 1991; Sadler & Tai, 2007).

History. Course Loads

Since the 1980s, the GPAs of U.S. high school students have gradually risen. At the same time, the proportion of high school students taking college preparatory classes and the proportion who aspire to graduate from college have constantly increased (Conley, 2006; Professional Media Group LLC, 2004). Data reveal that high school graduates from the year 2000 took more challenging courses, completed more course credits, and earned higher GPAs than graduates in the year 1990 (Aspen Publishers Inc., 2004; Carr, 2005).

Grade Inflation. Studies show that high school GPAs inflated between 1991 and 2003 without a concomitant increase in achievement. Depending on the subject area, the average amount of grade inflation over this thirteen-year period varied from 0.20 to 0.26 points on the 4-point grade scale (Woodruff & Ziomek, 2004a). A related study based on a nationally representative sample of 26,000 high school graduates similarly found that the average GPA was approximately a third of a letter grade higher in 2005 than in 1990 (Shettle et al., 2007). The same study revealed that the GPAs of four different racial groups--white, African American, Hispanic, and Asian/Pacific Islander--all increased between 1990 and 2005. Judy Kowarsky (1994) found that the GPAs of all ethnic groups except the Latino group graduating from California public high schools improved between 1986 and 1996.

Grading Standards. Differences in grading standards among U.S. public high schools were also documented between 1998 and 2002 (Woodruff & Ziomek, 2004b). Because of these differences, it is difficult to compare grades and GPAs across not only schools, but also districts and states. And although high schools have traditionally used students' grades and GPAs for comparative ranking purposes, the number of high schools that do not rank students has been increasing (Levy & Riordan, 1994).

Applications

Significance & Use. GPAs measure high school students' scholastic ability, achievement, and performance. Reeves (2006) makes the point that letter grades on report cards are the only source of information about the needs of lower-performing students. He concludes that, in most districts, students' report cards provide school leaders with very little information helpful to the lower-performing group of students whose academic performance lags behind that of their peers. He compared the performance differences of over 35,000 students in a midwestern school system. He found that the percent of proficient students in the lowest-achieving group of students was 3% in math, 12% in science, 28 % in reading, and 34% in social studies, whereas the percent of proficient students in the highest-achieving group of students was 21% in math, 39% in science, 53% in reading, and 69% in social studies. Figure 1, which is modified from Reeves (2006), shows that when the GPAs of the lowest-achieving and highest-achieving students are compared, the difference between the two groups is minimal--about .14 points.

Secondary schools as well as colleges and universities use GPAs to judge students' academic ability. High schools use students' GPAs for many different purposes, like determining eligibility for advanced courses or incentives like preferred parking spaces (Editorial Projects in Education Inc., 1999). As students finish high school, their GPAs can be used during the college admissions process.

Determining College Eligibility. GPAs indicate students' high school academic performances and are statistically significant predictors of high school students' future performance and success in higher education (Gabriel, 2005). College and university admissions departments, therefore, use GPAs in addition to other considerations like standardized test scores and students' high school courses to determine applicants' eligibility for admission.

Colleges and universities typically require students to meet or exceed a minimum GPA standard, though these standards can vary from school to school (California Postsecondary Education Commission, 2005; Gayles, 2006). For example, some schools may consider an applicant to have demonstrated sufficient academic aptitude by earning a C average or 2.0 GPA on a four-point scale (Eno, McLaughlin, Brozovsky, & Sheldon, 1998; Hebel, 2007). On the other hand, more competitive schools may require applicants to have earned a 3.5 GPA, or A/B average. Admissions officers may additionally consider applicants' class rankings (Center for Statistics, 1986; Rutledge, 1991).

GPAs are supplemented with standardized test scores, too. Like GPAs, most schools require their applicants to meet or exceed minimum SAT or ACT scores, and may also take into account any advanced placement test scores (Cowen & Fiori, 1991; Gayles, 2006). Meeting these minimum requirements does not guarantee admission, however. Students are also expected to demonstrate their seriousness and academic aptitude by completing a rigorous a high school curricula including college preparatory courses and subject requirements (Eno, McLaughlin, Brozovsky, & Sheldon, 1998; Hebel, 2007; Kowarsky, 1994).

Finally, admissions officers realize that college success is about more than just grades. High school students who are involved in athletics, student government, arts programs, or volunteer activities demonstrate that they possess personal qualities that will make them engaged and dynamic college students. Correspondingly, students who are involved in extracurricular activities tend to have higher GPAs and higher academic rankings. Admissions officers, therefore, frequently look at extracurricular activities and any non-academic honors, like service and leadership awards, to determine applicants' eligibility for admission (Center for Statistics, 1986; Hebel, 2007).

Besides determining eligibility for admission, all of these factors can also be used to determine applicants' eligibility for college scholarships. Depending on the type of scholarship, applicants may be required to have earned a minimum high school GPA, for example a 3.0. Students may also be required to maintain a minimum college GPA in order to retain their scholarships.

Prediction of Academic Success. Though colleges almost universally use high school GPAs to measure students' achievement and predict their academic success, experts disagree on how closely high school GPAs correlate to college GPAs (Hebel, 2007; Reese & Dunn, 2008). Christopher Erik Mattson (2007), for instance, concludes that students' high school GPAs are the single pre-college variable that most accurately predicts their college GPAs. Another study finds that high school GPAs have the highest correlation with college freshman GPAs, and are the strongest predictor of moderate first-year achievement, exceeding the predictability of ACT scores (Zwick & Schlemer, 2004; Noble & Sawyer, 2004). Michelle Hodara and Karyn Lewis (2017) found that GPAs were a better predictor than not only ACT scores, but also SAT and ACCUPLACER scores. Research also shows that, although academic ability is the most significant explanatory variable in studies on student learning, high school GPAs are also a significant control for academic aptitude and college grades (Grove, Wasserman, & Grodner, 2006).

Others, however, contend that predictive validity is improved by supplementing a student's GPA with other information concerning his or her pre-college achievements. Factoring in college entrance exam scores in addition to high school GPA, for instance, increases the predictability of overall college freshman GPA to a small but significant amount for all gender and ethnic subgroups (Cowen & Fiori, 1991). Likewise, one study found a direct link between high school students' mathematics coursework and their preparation for postsecondary education (Eno, McLaughlin, Brozovsky, & Sheldon, 1998). Another study found that the ability of high school GPAs to predict college performance was less strong for students who delayed entry to college rather than attending directly after high school (Hodara & Lewis, 2017). And even accounting for variations in college grading systems, another study showed that high school students who had one or more honors or advanced placement courses in science performed better and earned higher grades in an introductory college science course than those who had not taken advanced courses (Sadler and Tai, 2007). Another study found that at more demanding colleges, ACT scores are better predictors of first-year college GPAs than high school GPAs (Sawyer & Noble, 2004).

However valid the predictability of GPAs are, their level of validity is consistent across racial groups. High school GPAs and SAT scores explain between 7% and 20% of the variance in predicted first-year college GPA and college graduation rates for four ethnic groups: Hispanic, African American, and white students whose first language is English, and Hispanic students whose first language is Spanish (Zwick & Sklar, 2005). However, African American and Hispanic high school graduates tend to be less likely than white graduates to have high GPAs, while high school GPAs have a statistically significant correlation to white students' college graduation rate (Shettle et al., 2007; Zwick & Sklar, 2005).

Furthermore, students' high school GPAs can predict whether students will finish college. Compared to ACT scores and socio-economic factors, a student's high school GPA has the strongest possible relationship to college retention (Lotkowski, Robbins, & Noeth, 2004). Students who have higher high school GPAs are more likely to succeed in college based on measurements of their retention and graduation rates (Goenner & Snaith, 2004).

Some argue, however, that students' GPAs are not as strong a predictor of bachelor's degree attainment as a rigorous high school curriculum (Center for Comprehensive School Reform and Improvement, 2006). If high school curriculum is not designed to prepare students for college, then students' high school GPAs are irrelevant. So while taking college preparatory high school courses may earn students a high GPA, if these students are not taught how to write a persuasive essay, interrelate mathematical concepts, or engage in the thoughtful analysis of a text, they cannot be considered prepared for college success (Conley, 2005).

On the other hand, when high school curriculum aligns with college standards, GPAs can be indicative of the intellectual and metacognitive skills that will help a student succeed in college (Veenman, Kok, & Blote, 2005). In one study, students with high, but not the highest, high school GPAs were characterized by high motivation, persistence, and responsibility levels (Reese & Dunn, 2008). In other studies, high school GPAs were linked to students' persistence and educational self-efficacy (Sanjeev & Zytkow, 1995; Saunders, Davis, Williams, & Williams, 2004). At the college level, these personal qualities can translate into further academic self-confidence and motivation and, thereby, strong GPAs (Lotkowski, Robbins, & Noeth, 2004). Among college women, high school GPAs have been found to be positively related to educational self-efficacy (Rayle, Arredondo, & Karpius, 2005).

However, it is much more difficult to predict the success of at-risk students with high school GPA scores or college entrance exams (Cowen & Fiori, 1991). Mattson (2007), for instance, found that SAT scores were not able to predict college GPAs for specially admitted at-risk students. Another study found that only high school GPAs significantly affected the graduation rates of lower vocational-track students (Beekhoven & Dekkers, 2005).

Viewpoints

Advantages. The GPA system is probably the best available system for evaluating students' academic aptitude and their potential for future academic achievement. GPAs measure students' performance over a four-year period, making them a demonstrably better predictor of college success than standardized test scores, which are derived from only a few hours of testing. More so than college entrance exams, they reflect important non-academic qualities like organizational skills, determination, and ambition (Faulkner, 2002).

Additionally, the greater emphasis college admissions departments have placed on GPAs is thought to have increased colleges' acceptance of minority and low socioeconomic status students (Perrone, 1978).

Disadvantages. Grades, GPAs, and class ranks are not standard measurements; rather, they are norm-referenced within schools. Thus, their meanings can vary widely across schools and over time (Woodruff & Ziomek, 2004b). One outcome of this is grade inflation. Inflated GPAs may not reflect real gains in the achievement of high school students and thereby make it difficult to compare grades and GPAs across schools, districts, and states (Aspen Publishers Inc., 2004).

Schools may also vary in which courses they factor into students' GPAs. Because high achieving students may pass over non-weighted elective courses in order to enroll in weighted advanced classes that will allow them to earn extra points, some districts have stopped including elective courses like physical education, art, and music in calculations of their students' GPAs (Gewertz, 2007; Langendorfer et al., 2001).

Alternatively, students who are concerned about their GPAs may avoid higher level courses if they perceive that a more difficult course will lower their average and affect their chances for college admission (View, 2006).

Discrepancies between GPAs & Standardized Test Scores

Research has been conducted to examine the student- and school-level predictors of the existent discrepancy between students' high school GPA and their standardized SAT scores (Kobrin, Milewski, Everson, & Zhou, 2003). Several student-level variables--gender, socioeconomic status, and the difference between students' SAT mathematics and verbal scores--were found to be significant predictors of the discrepancy, as well as school-level factors like school size and economic advantage.

Though girls typically earn higher grades than boys in all major subjects and all courses throughout elementary, middle, and high school, and have higher grades and commensurately higher GPAs, boys tend to outperform girls on achievement and IQ tests (Duckworth & Seligman, 2006). One study found that the overall GPAs as well as the individual math and science GPAs of female graduates are higher than the overall GPAs and math and science GPAs of male graduates (Shettle et al., 2007). Nevertheless, females tend to score lower on standardized tests than males. Research on the underprediction of girls' GPAs by standardized tests has been primarily focused on, and explained by, test biases that favor boys. Duckworth and Seligman (2006), however, offer the alternative suggestion that girls earn higher GPAs, at least in part, because they are more self-disciplined. This self-discipline would be better reflected by grades, which are long term measurements, than by aptitude and achievement tests that are short term measurements, and thereby cause the discrepancy.

Terms & Concepts

Academic Standing: Achieving certain grades and maintaining a certain level of academic performance or GPA so as to remain eligible for acceptance, admittance, continuance, transfer, or for scholarships, honors, and awards.

Class Rank: A student's top percentile in his or her graduating class, for example, 98th percentile or top 2 percent of graduating seniors; can also refer to a student's numerical position in his or her graduating class, for example, 5th in a class of 300.

Class Standing: Relative level or classification--freshman, sophomore, Junior, or senior--of a student based on credits for courses successfully completed.

College Admission Profiles: Sets of indicative measures or determinants used to compare and rate applicants and candidates for acceptance and entry into postsecondary education.

College Eligibility: A student's given status or qualification for postsecondary education based on a number of measures or factors of high school academic performance, including cumulative GPA and college entrance exam scores.

Criterion Measure: Factor or variable such as a student's grades, cumulative GPA, or college entrance exam scores, used to predict future academic achievement or educational success.

Eligibility Index: An institution-based calculated measure, sometimes referred to as a "freshman index," which combines and concurrently considers students' high school GPA and college entrance exam scores.

Five-Point Grading Scale: A basic grading system that uses the following specific letter grades and equivalent values: A=5; B=4; C=3; D=2; and F=0. In calculating GPAs, multiply the respective equivalent letter-grade value by the total credits of respective letter-grade work, add and divide by the total number of credits, and round off the result to one decimal place.

Four-Point Grading Scale: A basic grading system that uses the following specific letter grades and equivalent values: A=4; B=3, C=2; D=1; and F=0. To calculate GPAs, multiply the respective equivalent letter-grade value by the total credits of respective letter-grade work, add and divide by the total number of credits, and round off the result to one decimal place.

Grade Inflation: The continual increase in students' grades as reflected in steadily increasing GPAs over time without a concomitant increase in achievement.

Grade Point Average: Abbreviated with the acronym GPA; a calculated cumulative mean (or sometimes median) measure of a student's academic performance based on grades in all courses of study or in specific core courses; can also refer to an interim, current, or semester GPA as well.

Norm-Referenced: Measures, tests, or scores used to compare an individual student's performance with that of other students; examples are GPAs and college entrance exam scores.

Predictive Validity: The degree to which the predictions made by a test or other criterion measure such as GPA are confirmed or borne out by students' later behavior, performance, or level of success (Borg & Gall, 1989).

Self-Efficacy: The confidence in one's own ability to perform a particular task; for example, with regard to educational goals, an orientation and motivation to achieve academically and to succeed.

Underprediction: A statistical probabilistic effect or anomaly in which first-year college female students' academic performance is inaccurately predicted and underestimated based on their relatively poorer performance compared to male students on suspected gender-biased college entrance exams; the higher high school GPAs of females compared to males is more reflective and predictive of the actual academic performance of first-year college female students.

Weighted Grade Point Averages: GPAs that are based on and incorporate increased values or bonus points for certain types of courses (e.g., honors or AP classes) or for the plusses on letter grades; can also incorporate decreased values for certain types of courses (e.g., electives or physical education) or for the minuses on letter grades.

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Grade Point Averages

On this Page

Subject Terms

Grade Point Averages

Abstract

Overview

Applications

Viewpoints

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading