Hermeneutics

Hermeneutics refers to the methods and techniques used to interpret a written text. While the process can be applied to any text, hermeneutics is most often associated with the Bible. In the case of the Bible, hermeneutical interpretation refers to determining what the original meaning of the text was and the impact this original meaning has on the life of a modern-day reader.

Background

People have been interpreting the Bible and the stories within it for as long as these stories have been shared. These interpretations are nearly always influenced by the person who has translated the work and those reading it. The Bible was written in Hebrew and Greek and other ancient languages that most people do not speak, so any biblical text a person reads is likely to have been translated into a different language at least once. The variances in word usage and cultural differences mean that even the act of translating Scripture from one language to another will result in some interpretation. People also interpret the text they read differently; their background, agenda, education, and other factors affect how they explain its meaning. For this reason, those specializing in biblical hermeneutics have developed rules that should be followed when determining the meaning of biblical text.

Hermeneutics at its most basic is a two-step process. First, hermeneutic interpreters look carefully at language, history, culture, and other factors to determine what the words meant to the writer and the person or people for whom they were written. They will often use multiple source documents, including a variety of texts of the same section of the Bible, to determine the exact word that was used and its form (such as determining if a verb used was conjugated into the present, past, or future tense). The scholars also look for similarities and differences among the texts, taking note of words that were added or missing between versions and determining a timeline for when these changes were made.

Second, interpreters examine how that original meaning relates to the people who are reading the text in their current time and place. For example, both the Old and New Testament contain passages about the treatment of enslaved people. In the time they were written, slavery was an accepted practice, so the rules provided practical information to the Bible's original audience about how they should act. However, it would not be correct in the twenty-first century to use those passages as justification for slavery. Instead, a hermeneutic study might determine that these passages remind the reader of the appropriate way to treat those who serve by doing menial tasks.

Hermeneutic interpreters face several special challenges when studying the Bible this way. Both steps of the hermeneutical process need to be completed while keeping in mind that Christians and Jews consider the Bible to be God's Word. Therefore, in addition to looking at the linguistics and historical context of the material contained in Scripture, the biblical scholar needs to view the descriptions and events as an interaction between God and humankind.

Furthermore, the study of hermeneutics needs to determine when a biblical story is meant to be read in a literal manner and when it is figurative. For example, when the second chapter of the Book of Acts describes the Holy Spirit descending on the Apostles as tongues of fire, does it mean that there were literal flames or are the flames a metaphor for something else? Another challenge is allegory: while some branches of Christianity and Judaism see the Bible as a very literal text, others see some of the stories as allegories (e.g., the story of Jonah and the whale from the Old Testament Book of Jonah). The hermeneutic scholar investigating biblical allegories would delve into legends and culture to determine how these might have influenced the stories and the meaning that the original author and audience would have seen in them.

Approaches

Hermeneutic interpreters use several key approaches when determining the meaning of a scriptural passage. Analyzing the words chosen, verb tenses, and punctuation and sentence structure is known as the lexical-syntactical method of analysis. A thorough understanding of grammar and vocabulary of biblical times is needed for this method. Another approach is the historical/cultural analytical method, where the hermeneutical scholar uses knowledge of what life was like at the time and what was going on in the world around the author and audience to help discern the original meaning of the text. Scholars will also apply contextual analysis, looking at the text as it relates to the material surrounding it in the Bible to ensure the full meaning is understood. For example, the line in Exodus 21:24 that refers to taking "an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth" is often quoted to justify revenge; in its original context, however, it was meant to limit retribution and prohibit someone from killing another based on a lesser injury.

Hermeneutic interpreters will also analyze how a section of Scripture fits into the overall theology of its subject. For instance, money is mentioned many times in the Bible. A biblical scholar examining a verse related to money will compare it to other verses on the subject to see how they all fit together and form an overall theology of money. This is called theological analysis.

Biblical scholars will also examine other types of literature, especially when dealing with the sections of the Bible that resemble those literary forms. For example, a scholar reading the psalms might compare them to poetry or even song lyrics and look at them with an eye toward the standards that direct how these are written.

While biblical texts have been studied and interpreted for as long as they have existed, many of the formal rules governing the practice began in the latter part of the eighteenth century. German philosopher and theologian Friedrich Daniel Ernst Schleiermacher (1768–1834) is credited with being among the first to apply serious study procedures to hermeneutics. In the twentieth century, Karl Barth (1886–1968) is often considered to be the foremost theologian to specialize in hermeneutics.

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