Higher education

Higher education refers to formal learning beyond a high school level. It most frequently takes the form of college. Higher education is typically designed to offer very specialized coursework, allowing students to study particular fields in depth. While initially created as an exclusive opportunity for society's elite members, the concept expanded over the centuries to cater to individuals of many different classes and backgrounds. Early universities focused on fields known as the liberal arts, including philosophy, logic, medicine, theology, astronomy, language, science, and art. Later, universities began offering courses in applied sciences, engineering, and business fields. Trade and vocational schools provided higher learning opportunities for traditionally blue-collar occupations.

As it expanded to cover more people and more subjects, higher education became known as an opportunity for a better quality of life, allowing lower- and middle-class people to train for more lucrative careers than their family members before them. However, between technological advancements, economic change, and an increasing emphasis on global collaboration, universities are constantly under pressure to adapt and improve.

Brief History

In the early Middle Ages, higher learning was typically managed by churches and monasteries. Some of the earliest institutions that resemble modern universities date back to the late eleventh century. Rulers and governments began to establish universities across Europe. They emphasized study of the liberal arts. The concept grew in popularity and even spread to European colonies.

Harvard was the first college established in what is now the United States, opening its doors in 1636. The earliest American universities catered to those studying to be clergy. They gradually shifted to include secular education following the United States obtaining its independence. However, colleges still primarily targeted upper-class citizens.

The amount of universities increased greatly in the nineteenth century. The second half of the century also saw a dramatic change in the courses offered by colleges. The major source of change was the Morrill Act of 1862. Under this act, the US federal government donated land to the states, with the condition that the land be used to establish universities that specialized in what Congress saw as more practical fields, particularly agriculture and engineering. This led to a new wave of colleges opening across the country, as well as some established colleges expanding to include new fields. Michigan State University and the Pennsylvania State University were two of the pioneering schools of what became known as the land-grant university, serving as templates for others to follow. These schools attracted a new demographic: middle-class laborers such as farmers. A second Morrill Act was passed in 1890, primarily granting land and bringing new colleges to former Confederate states.

Higher education was still not common to the masses by World War II. That changed as a result of the GI Bill: the Servicemen's Readjustment Act of 1944. The GI Bill was a benefits package offered to returning veterans to help them transition back to civilian life. Among its provisions was full college tuition and housing. At one point, nearly half of all students enrolled in US colleges were veterans. This surge of lower- and middle-class enrollment forever changed the perception of college. As the century progressed, more universities emerged, including trade schools. Higher education became attainable for nearly everyone.

Topic Today

Since the late twentieth century, higher education has grown even more expansive and inclusive. Evolving technology and global competition have also led to change. These shifts have left strong impacts on the perception of higher education from academics, economists, and the public.

In the 1960s, the United States was entrenched in the civil rights movement. One major policy that resulted from the movement was affirmative action. This was a policy that applied to both employment and education, and was designed to provide greater opportunities to minorities, who faced several disadvantages in both the workforce and college admissions. Many communities heavily populated by minorities, particularly large urban neighborhoods, were not as well equipped to prepare students for college. Racism was also open and prevalent in many colleges. Affirmative action was conceived to balance out these disadvantages. Diversity in US higher education increased dramatically, but both diversity and affirmative action became major points of debate that continued into the twenty-first century.

Critics of affirmative action have argued that giving special attention to minorities lowers the value of universities and degrees. They have also said that it is unfair to students who merit admission without any outside assistance. Another argument is that affirmative action has only been effective at helping middle- and upper-class minorities, not the lower class that struggles with the most disadvantages. Proponents have said that while race-based discrimination and disadvantages are not as blatant as they were when affirmative action was formed, they still have enough influence to warrant the policy.

Technological advancements have had a major impact on higher education. Many classes with larger sizes make use of clickers, remote devices that students can use to answer multiple-choice questions, with the total results—not individual answers—typically displayed for students and faculty alike to see. This helps address some criticisms of large class sizes: that professors could not meet student needs or gauge how they responded to different material, and that students had difficulty actively participating in such a setting. With this, professors can get immediate input from students.

The evolution of the Internet has had a large impact on higher education. Some institutions offer degrees through entirely online coursework, providing more accessibility. More established colleges began making use of the Internet as well. The ability to post and share information online led to much more flexible class structure. Some universities have made resources, lectures, and courses available free to the public. This unprecedented level of information accessibility has shifted the entire landscape of higher education. The importance of brick-and-mortar locations, the necessity of expensive textbooks, and the job security of professors, authors, and other faculty have been called into question with the increasing capability and availability of the Internet.

By the early twenty-first century, it was common for US high school counselors, employers, and other role models and authority figures to encourage children to attend college. This viewpoint lost some prominence following the recession of the late 2000s because of sharply rising tuition costs and the difficulty many college graduates had securing employment. Trade and vocational schools were growing more popular. Higher education was still commonly recommended, but with the vast amount of options available, counselors and college reviewers placed more emphasis on finding a viable career path before committing to a decision.

In the 2020s, views on in person versus remote higher education began to shift following the impact of the coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) pandemic. In 2023, the Supreme Court ruled that race-conscious admissions programs at Harvard University and the University of North Carolina were unlawful, which overturned a landmark precedent of affirmative action.

Bibliography

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