History of Instructional Design

The concept of Instructional Design was adopted as a means of organizing learning and providing objective-based methodologies for conveying knowledge. Instructional Design Theories and Models are still changing over time, as educational philosophies and current trends in modern education evolve. This article presents an overview of the concept of Instructional Design (ID) in American education, and provides further insights into specific aspects of Instructional Design such as the Behaviorist, Programmed Instruction, Constructivist and Direct Instruction approaches which are still used in some form today. Instructional Systems Design is used in technological, computer and industrial learning for training in the rapidly changing environments of the modern information age.

Keywords ADDIE Model; Behaviorism; Bloom's Taxonomy; Classical Conditioning; Constructivism; Dick and Carey Model; Instructional Design; Instructional Systems Design; Instructional Delivery System; Learning Models; Learning Objectives; Mastery Learning; Nine Events of Instruction; Operant Conditioning; Programmed Instruction; Reinforcement; Task analysis

Overview

Instructional Design can be defined as the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning theory to ensure the quality of instruction. It includes the analysis of learning needs and objectives and the development of a delivery system including instructional materials and activities to meet those objectives. Evaluation of all instruction and learner activities is central to the theory. Its main foundation is that of an objective-oriented model for managing the instructional process, which is rooted in theories that specify how high-quality instruction should be performed. A successful learning situation is one in which behavior goals are reached through mastery of a series of small steps or tasks which represent a larger objective. Each step or task is clearly defined and outcomes and activities are continually assessed to evaluate efficiency.

Instructional Design theory has evolved over many decades and consists of several different models which can be applied to many types of learning situations. As a discipline, Instructional Design developed slowly from the time of Plato and Socrates to the philosophers of the 17th and 18th centuries. By the turn of the 20th century, the concepts of learning theory and educational psychology were beginning to take form in modern thought. The turmoil of the first half of the 20th century brought political and social changes which in turn encouraged new ways to look at the purpose and functions of our education system. By the 1950's, educational theories abounded, and Instructional Design was quickly adapted to many theories and models.

Theories that were used to approach Instructional Design were originally conceived in the military. During World War II, personnel had to be trained quickly and efficiently to perform their duties. Military researchers developed training films and corresponding programs to get the troops ready. The development of this task-oriented method of instructional technology spurred further research into the formulation of theoretical models of learning (Leigh, n.d.).

Influence of Behaviorism

The developers of early Instructional Design models were associated with the Behaviorist school of learning theory. Behaviorism looked at learning as a stimulus, response, and reinforcement process (S-R-R), first outlined by Ivan Pavlov's Classical Conditioning theory, and continued by B. F. Skinner. Such reactive behavior was documented in animals and adapted to human learning situations, positing that all behavior is explained by external events. The influence of Behaviorism on learning led to a form of Instructional Design that incorporated immediate feedback and reinforcement with drill and practice procedures and programmed instruction that allowed the learner to repeat tasks that were not performed correctly until they were mastered. Behavioral outcomes were directly connected to instruction systems.

The 1950's in America were characterized by a huge economic boom which followed World War II. The launch of the Soviet satellite Sputnik triggered an education panic in the U.S., prompting politicians and educators to send large amounts of Federal money to research on education, especially concentrating on studies in cognition and instruction. In Universities around the country, theoretical models of learning were being developed by educational theorists and psychologists such as B. F. Skinner and Benjamin Bloom. Skinner's work in Operant Conditioning and Stimulus-Response-Reinforcement theory ultimately led to what is considered a first incarnation of Instructional Design, called Programmed Instruction (PI). PI emphasized formulating behavioral objectives, breaking down instructional content into smaller units and rewarding correct responses early and often. Benjamin Bloom's 1956 taxonomy of educational objectives (Bloom's Taxonomy) and theory of mastery learning formed the basis of a standardized design process introduced by Robert Glaser in 1962. Glaser's model linked learner analysis to the design and development of instruction. His 'instructional systems' assessed students' entry-level behavior to determine the extent to which they would learn needed objectives. This not only tested the learners, but tested the learning system as well.

Also in 1962, Robert Mager developed the idea of Learning or Behavioral Objectives. His central concept was that training needs should be analyzed and the learning goals (objectives) of the program be defined. Each objective should then be broken down into smaller tasks. Each behavioral objective should have three criteria: Behavior, Condition and Standard. In 1965 Robert Gagné introduced the Nine Events of Instruction, a series of distinct steps necessary for learning to occur. Gagné also introduced the concept of task analysis, previously used in military training, which broke each task to be mastered down to its most basic components, or subtasks. The theories of both of these scholars are still used today in modern Instructional Design systems.

Instructional Design in the Schools & Beyond

During the 1960's and 1970's, Instructional Design in one form or another was widely adopted in the public schools as the most effective teaching process available. Robert Morgan and Leslie Briggs conducted several studies which demonstrated that an instructionally designed course could yield up to a 2:1 increase over conventionally designed courses in terms of achievement, reduction in variance, and reduction of time-to-completion. This was four times greater than that of a control group which received no training. New teachers were extensively trained in Instructional Design, primarily with the Behaviorist approach.

Instructional Design models flourished in the 1970's and into the 1980's, with many researchers contributing to the field, such as Robert Branson and W. Dick and L. Carey. With the onset of the Information Age, many organizations established formal education and training departments to educate employees in the rapidly developing uses of computers and technology. Instructional Design programs proved effective and efficient in introducing employees to new technological methods and concepts and training them to perform the new skills needed.

Instructional Systems Design (ISD), as the field is now sometimes called, has become a significant tool in the computer and technology training fields, as well as in computer-aided education in the schools. It has also been adopted in one form or another in corporate training programs for technical and other employees. Today, the ADDIE Model of Instructional Systems Design is widely used in all forms of instruction, particularly web-based and on-line computer instruction. Second to ADDIE is the Dick and Carey Model of Instructional Design, although it has recently been criticized as rigid.

Since the 1990's, the models have moved away from the Behaviorist approach and adopted a Constructivist approach to creating learning environments with less formal structure and facilitated by teachers. These are based on the theory of Constructivism, which differs vastly from Behaviorism in that it holds that knowledge is internal and tested by the individual in reality. Instructional Design models in today's school classroom are vastly different from their behavioral roots, but still valuable tools for effective teaching.

Further Insights

The following relevant concepts have influenced and shaped Instructional Design in the Twentieth century, including their applications in Education today:

• Stimulus-Response theory

• Behaviorism

• Programmed instruction

• Operant Conditioning

• Constructivism

• John Dewey and Pragmatism

• Direct Instruction and DISTAR

• Madeline Hunter and Theory into Practice

• Computer-Assisted learning

Stimulus-Response Theory

Stimulus-Response theory is the premise that stimuli exist that directly cause unconditioned, or instinctive physiological and behavioral responses in humans and animals. Ivan Pavlov first studied this phenomenon in 1927, which led to his model of Classical Conditioning. Pavlov demonstrated that stimulus and response could be controlled, or conditioned, to manipulate the responses into changed behaviors. His most famous experiment involved the association of food (unconditioned stimulus) to the salivation response (unconditioned response) of a dog. When paired with the sound of a bell (conditioned stimulus), the sight of the food causes the dog to salivate. However, after conditioning, the dog learns to salivate only at the sound of the bell (conditioned response), with no food present. Pavlov's Classical Conditioning theory, based on stimulus-response, was ultimately embraced by the Behaviorist school of learning psychology, and modified by B. F. Skinner's theory of Operant Conditioning, in which post-response consequences were introduced to provide additional motivation for positive behavioral outcomes.

Behaviorism

Behaviorism is a school of psychology which holds that all behavior of all organisms is caused directly by responses to our environment. First introduced by John Watson and B.F. Skinner, Behaviorism has been widely studied and incorporated into educational learning theory. The doctrine of Behaviorism holds that psychology is the science of behavior, and not of the mind, and that behavior is explained exclusively by external, observable events. This movement ran in direct opposition to Sigmund Freud's school of Psychoanalysis, which was gaining popularity simultaneously. In the classroom, behavioral teaching is the arrangement of consequences and reinforcement by which students learn. Through Operant Conditioning, punishment will deter poor learning results and reinforcement will encourage positive ones. Today, Skinnerian Behaviorism is generally considered radical. Instructional Design incorporates behavioral objectives in its models, which encourage the mastery of tasks and learning. For example, an evaluation portion of the learning activity that is executed with letter grades is a form of stimulus-response-reinforcement. A good letter grade (A) is positive reinforcement. A poor letter grade (F) is punishment.

Programmed Instruction

First popularized by B.F. Skinner in the 1950's, Programmed Instruction is a teaching method that provides students with small, manageable and precisely defined increments of learning followed by positive reinforcement for mastery. Programmed Instruction is considered the first phase of several developments that led to Instructional Design. Today, Programmed Instruction is still used in computer-aided classrooms and is generally broken down into two types. Linear Programmed Instruction guides the student through a set sequence of tasks and students do not advance to the next step until the current step is successfully completed. Branched Programmed Instruction allows the student to choose different paths to the correct outcome, and assumes that the learning process can be different for different learners. Both styles offer frequent and immediate feedback and reinforcement. While Programmed Instruction is still used in schools today for some types of learning, it is primarily found in industrial settings and in the armed forces, where training large numbers of personnel for specific tasks is required.

While many educators agree that Programmed Instruction and the Behaviorist approach to Instructional Design can serve as valuable supplement to other teaching methods, others have criticized the approach as not providing enough learning synthesis for problem-solving in other environmental situations. Norma Feshback and J. W. Eshleman are two critics of the theory. They have written that Programmed Instruction does not account for individual differences in students and does not apply well to higher-level material. Feshback believes that Programmed Instruction may be more appropriate for a specific group of students at a specific level, but not for general groups. Eshleman points out that Programmed Instruction does not introduce students to new material after the initial task, and its rigid sequencing is not appropriate for all learning contexts.

Operant Conditioning

Also known as Behavior Modification, Operant Conditioning uses systems of consequences to modify behavior. It was first studied by Edward Thorndike in the 1920's; he theorized that positive behavior was ingrained over time by successful outcomes. In other words, organisms could learn to use only the behavior that produced a rewarding outcome and discard behaviors that did not. Later, B. F. Skinner, a Behaviorist, expanded the model and constructed a more detailed theory. The central concepts of his theory of Operant Conditioning are reinforcement, punishment and extinction. Reinforcement is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur more frequently, while punishment is a consequence that causes a behavior to occur less frequently. Extinction is the lack of either consequence after a response, rendering the response inconsequential. This will eventually also lead to a reduction in the occurrence of the inconsequential behavior. Operant Conditioning is incorporated in Instructional Design by the use of positive reinforcement for the mastery of tasks and objectives.

Constructivism

Constructivism is attributed to the work of philosopher and developmental psychologist Jean Piaget, who pioneered the cognitive learning theory. The constructivist theory holds that knowledge is constructed internally within the individual, and we continually construct new knowledge through experience. In the classroom, the constructivist theory is usually employed with less formal structure in the planning of lessons and teachers take the role of facilitators who guide students to their own conclusions. Students discover knowledge through a journey of interaction and experience through the learning process. Rather than the step-by-step systematic approach to learning inherent in Behaviorism, Constructivists believe that learning is ultimately social and cognitive, and Constructivism in schools fosters peer learning in a culturally and socially relevant environment. Today, most Instructional Systems Design models use a Constructivist approach.

John Dewey & Pragmatism

While Programmed Instruction and behaviorist approaches to Instructional Design were prominent in the mid-twentieth century, another view was making its way into education theory. John Dewey was a philosopher and educational reformer, and had died before learning theory became an educational discipline. Dewey was a leader in the school of Pragmatism, and believed that education should not be the mere teaching of facts but an interactive process which should require critical thinking skills to bring knowledge into a student's life. He argued that traditional reinforcement and programming in instruction did not lead to deep learning. He promoted "learning by doing" and pioneered several efforts at school reform toward the Progressive education movement in the 1930's, which ultimately failed. While popular, few of Dewey's philosophies were ever adopted into mainstream Instructional Design. However, in the latter part of the 20th century many of his theories have been revisited by new reformers in the field.

Direct Instruction & DISTAR

One of the most widely used yet controversial Instructional Design models in recent years is the Direct Instruction model. Siegfried Engelmann and Wesley C. Becker developed the model to provide systematic instruction for disadvantaged elementary school children. DISTAR (Direct Instruction System for Teaching Arithmetic and Reading) programs were implemented around the country in underperforming schools. While Direct Instruction is considered a comprehensive model of school reform in the 1980's and 90's, it has been highly controversial among educational theorists regarding its efficacy. Humanists have questioned the return of DI to a rote-style, teacher-directed model which discourages social growth and inquiry. However, recent long-term studies (such as Project Follow Through) have shown that lower-socioeconomic groups taught by a DI model have been shown performance improvement. Still, many educators feel that DI should only be used in limited situations (or not at all) and not as a primary method.

Madeline Hunter & Theory into Practice

Perhaps no one more than Madeline Hunter found problems in traditional Instructional Design theory. An educator and prolific writer, Hunter recognized foremost that most Instructional Design theory and models did not spell out in plain language specific methods that teachers could implement in the real life classroom. Hunter followed a Direct Instruction model and developed the Theory into Practice teaching model. She demonstrated with specific examples how a teacher should incorporate objectives and goals into everyday lesson plans. Her Seven Components of Teaching are still taught to and used by classroom teachers today.

Computer-Assisted Learning

With the increase in new media, especially the explosion of the Internet, computer-assisted learning has become widely adopted in schools. Instructional Design for computer-aided education has also evolved quickly. Originally, computer enhanced programs employed a basic Behaviorism-based approach with heavy emphasis on Programmed Instruction. Today, like in most classrooms, a Constructivist approach has become the norm. One of the leading educational theorists in the computer-aided learning field is Seymour Papert. Known as the father of Artificial Intelligence, Papert has developed a learning approach called Constructionism, an offshoot of Constructivism. He was one of the first to bring information technology to the classroom. His Logo computer language and MIT Media Lab are at the forefront of developing instruction for computer learning.

Terms & Concepts

ADDIE Model: An early (1975) Instructional Systems Design model adopted by the armed forces and is still widely used in the industrial and technology fields today. ADDIE stands for Analysis, Design, Development, Implementation and Evaluation.

Behaviorism: A school of thought in psychology which holds that all behavior can be studied and explained scientifically through observable actions and responses. Internal thoughts and feelings are not considered as they cannot be seen.

Bloom's Taxonomy: A classification of educational objectives developed by Benjamin Bloom. Knowledge is categorized into three domains: the Affective, the Cognitive, and the Psychomotor. Within each domain occur different levels of learning, from simple recall to higher critical skills. Also called the Taxonomy of Educational Objectives.

Classical Conditioning: The process of manipulating stimuli to condition behavioral responses.

Constructivism: A school of thought in psychology which holds that knowledge is constructed internally within the individual, and we continually construct new knowledge through experience.

Dick and Carey Model: An ISD model similar to ADDIE but more complex in orientation. While still used today, it has been criticized by some as too cumbersome for the average design process.

Instructional Design: the systematic development of instructional specifications using learning theory to ensure the quality of instruction.

Learning Objectives: A clearly defined goal or set of goals to be reached and mastered in a learning activity.

Mastery Learning: An Instructional Design method in which students are provided a specific series of tasks and do not advance to the next task until the first is mastered.

Model of Learning: A theoretical outline for instruction which follows a learning theory.

Nine Events of Instruction: A model developed by Robert M. Gagné which proposed that nine conditions had to occur for successful learning. They are: Gain attention, Inform learner of objective, Stimulate recall of prior learning, Present stimulus material, Provide learner guidance, Elicit performance, Provide feedback, Assess performance and Enhance retention transfer.

Operant Conditioning: The process of modifying behavior through reinforcement--rewarding positive or punishing negative responses.

Programmed Instruction: A method of instruction which adopts the behaviorist theory of learning.

Reinforcement: The encouragement of a desired behavior or response with positive feedback or reward, in order to increase the frequency of the desired behavior.

Task Analysis: The process of breaking down a task into its fundamental components to understand how the task should be learned and performed.

Bibliography

Bibliography

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Chevalier, R.D. (2011). When did ADDIE become addie?. Performance Improvement, 50, 10-14. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=62675250&site=ehost-live

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Leigh, D. (n.d.). A brief history of instructional design. Retrieved October 18, 2006 from Performance Improvement Global Network website: http://www.pignc-ispi.com/articles/education/brief%20history.htm

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Pascopella, A. (2005). Catalyst for change. District Administration 41 . Retrieved October 20, 2006 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18426708&site=ehost-live

Ryder, M. (n.d.). Instructional design models. Instructional technology connections. Retrieved October 18, 2006 from University of Colorado at Denver, http://carbon.cudenver.edu/~mryder/itc%5fdata/idmodels.html

Shibley, I., Amaral, K.E., Shank, J.D., & Shibley, L.R. (2011). Designing a blended course: Using ADDIE to guide instructional design. Journal of College Science Teaching, 40, 80-85. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=62246180&site=ehost-live

Spector, J. M. (2001). Philosophical implications for the design of instruction. Instructional Science, 29 (4/5), 381-402. Retrieved October 20, 2006 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=16980117&site=ehost-live

Programmed instruction. (n.d.). WikEd. Retrieved October 18, 2006 from University of Illinois, Urbana-Champaign http://wik.ed.uiuc.edu/index.php/Programmed%5finstruction

Wiburg, K. M. (n.d.) An historical perspective on instructional design: Is it time to exchange Skinner's teaching machine for Dewey's toolbox? Retrieved October 19, 2006 from http://internettime.com/itimegroup/Is%20it%20Time%20to%20Exchange%20Skinner's%20Teaching%20Machine%20for%20Dewey's.htm

Suggested Reading

Bloom, Benjamin. (1956). The taxonomy of educational objectives. Boston, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Dewey, John. (1959). Dewey on education: Selections from the child and the curriculum. New York: Teacher's College Press.

Gagne, Robert M. (1965). The conditions of learning. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.

Gagne, Robert M., Leslie Briggs and Walter W. Wager. (1992) Principles of instructional design. 4th ed. Forth Worth: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich College Publishers, 1992.

Skinner, B.F. (1954). Behavior of organisms. Acton, MA: Copley. Thorndike, E. (1966). Human learning. (New impression edition) Cambridge, MA: MIT Press.