Inclusive Education in Developing Countries

Inclusive education (IE), also known as mainstreaming, means putting special education students into regular classrooms instead of separating them through placement in special education classes. This practice has been gaining popularity in many developed countries, partially because most of the world's disabled people live in developing countries. IE offers many benefits to special needs and mainstream students; it allows special needs students to more fully assimilate into culture and promotes tolerance and acceptance among mainstream students. However, IE is a process that requires careful teacher training, monitoring, and education support. The great difficulty is that many school systems in developing countries do not have enough financial capita, resources, or teachers trained in special education to properly assimilate special needs students into mainstream classrooms. Many developing countries' school budgets cannot cover all the mainstream students that need to be taught, and therefore the education of special needs students is often seen as an unaffordable luxury. While IE offers many benefits and is likely to be the best or the only way special needs students in developing countries can be educated, it also has many significant barriers that prevent it from being implemented or used to its fullest extent.

Keywords Developing Countries; Disabled Students; Inclusive Education; Mainstream; Mainstreaming; Non-Government Organization (NGO); Primary Education; Special Education; Special Needs

Overview

Inclusive education (IE) happens when special education students are placed into a mainstream classroom rather than in a special education class and both special needs and regular classroom students learn together in the same setting. As cultures gradually become more tolerant of disabilities and as education researchers continue to evaluate and revise education practices and policies, IE has become an increasingly larger topic for discussion. Many school systems in developed countries such as the U.S. are practicing IE or implementing IE pilot programs in their classrooms, but IE is also becoming an important topic in the school systems of developing countries.

In fact, it could be argued that IE is of even more importance to developing countries because the greatest percentage of disabled people reside in developing countries. These individuals, struggling with physical and mental disabilities such as partial paralysis, Down syndrome, or blindness have two enormous obstacles in their lives: the vast majority of them are uneducated and therefore are unemployed and impoverished, and their disabilities greatly hinder them from becoming educated. Arguably, a lack of education is the greatest disability of all, and these disabled individuals must suffer the deprivations of educational disability along with physical or mental disability.

Because there are numerous disabled and special needs students living in countries where educational opportunities are scarce, IE is uplifted as a way of both giving these students access to an education and helping them become accepted into society as full, participating members. However, there are many issues plaguing IE in developing countries, and one of the two most prominent issues are money and resources.

Access to Basic Education

Access to education is becoming more common around the globe, thanks in part to UNESCO's Education for All (EFA) agenda, which calls for all people in the world to have access to a quality primary education by the year 2015. This means that many developing countries are faced with the need to dramatically increase and strengthen their school systems or create school systems entirely. Unfortunately, the education budgets for most developing countries are small and significantly strained, and these countries are often unable to provide the resources for properly educating students that do not have disabilities. Hallahan (1998) said that special needs education requires more financial expenditure and human involvement and as a result, many developing countries have regarded special education as non-crucial despite the high percentages of disabled citizens in these countries.

Even if a developing country has the financial resources to properly integrate special needs students into regular classrooms, IE is not the act of merely "dumping" special needs students into regular classrooms and hoping they can stay afloat (Charema, 2007). For IE to work properly and for both special needs and regular education students to function properly together in a classroom, teachers need careful training and the IE process itself needs to be closely monitored. A good percentage of teachers in developed countries lack the education, pedagogical training, and resources to properly instruct their regular students. Many teachers in developing countries do not have any special needs training and are significantly unprepared to successfully instruct the special needs students that are mainstreamed into their classrooms.

Physical issues such as school facilities and aids for special needs students are also a problem in developing countries. A school's building may not be wheelchair accessible, and physically disabled students may not even have wheelchairs. Hearing-disabled students may not have the hearing aid resources they need. In a classroom where there is one textbook for twenty regular students, sight-impaired students most likely will not have the special reading resources they need. Even a well-trained, dedicated teacher would have difficulty effectively teaching special needs and mainstream students in the same classroom without the resources these special students require. A lack of resources may mean that special needs students cannot learn effectively or a teacher spends so much time working with the special needs students that the other students are ignored.

Finally, cultural attitudes about disabilities also significantly impact IE's implementation and success. The cultures of some developing countries maintain that disabled people are cursed and should be avoided: this can create problems if the parents of regular students object strongly to special needs students being placed in the same classroom. Unless a culture accepts people with disabilities and wishes to see these individuals become fully assimilated members of society, IE will face much opposition in some areas.

It is clear that special needs education is a crucial concern in developing countries. IE holds many promises for special needs students in developing countries and can be a very effective way for these students to be both educated and accepted by the surrounding community. However, it is also rife with numerous issues and concerns that must be carefully judged, evaluated, and overcome.

Further Insights

By the Numbers

The number of people with special needs in developing countries is significant. Approximately 80% of disabled people reside in the developing countries of Africa, the Middle East, Asia, the Caribbean, and Latin America, and only 2% of all the disabled people receive special needs services and rehabilitation in those areas. Furthermore, approximately 150 million are children of school age (Charema, 2007). For example, Stough (2003) said that roughly 10% (,) of the students in Costa Rica's school system are severely disabled (p. 7).

Furthermore, Kristensen, Magor-Loican, and Onen (2003) said that "special needs" does not just mean students that have physical or developmental issues such as paralysis or mental retardation. Other students who have special education needs may include children who are heads of their households, former child-soldiers, street children, orphans, child prostitutes, and children of war and displacement. These tragic and life-shattering situations befall many children in developed countries and, as a result, education can be very challenging for these students.

These large numbers of special needs students in developing countries means that these countries have a high need for effective and innovative ways to properly educate these students. IE in developing countries can be a way for schools to serve the needs of disabled students. Furthermore, non government organizations and human rights organizations are putting increasing pressure on school systems and countries to make IE happen (Mushoriwa, 2001). Therefore, it is reasonable to say that IE will be an increasingly larger issue in the education systems of developing countries, and teachers in these countries will see increasing numbers of special needs students integrated into their classrooms.

Additional Barriers

One of the difficulties surrounding IE in developing countries is the fact that research about education in these countries is often significantly lacking. For example, Charema (2007) stated flatly, "There is no reliable information about types and incidence of special educational needs in developing countries" (p. 89). Furthermore, many of these IE programs in developing countries are more properly defined as "pilot programs" (Eleweke & Rodda, 2002). There is little data to suggest that very many special needs students in developing countries are being placed in an IE environment.

Eleweke and Rodda (2002) listed three major problems hindering IE implementation in developing countries. The first problem was a widespread lack of school facilities and teachers who are trained in special education. One issue with school facilities is that the majority of disabled students in developing countries live in rural areas but nearly all special needs resources are in urban areas (Charema, 2007). Thus, even when there are facilities and resources for special needs students, they are often unable to access these services.

Trained teachers are crucial to IE success. Placing sight-disabled or mentally handicapped students in a mainstreamed classroom can create enormous problems for both the mainstreamed and the special needs students, so teachers with IE classrooms need training and resources to be able to successfully teach all of their students. However, teachers qualified in special needs education are exceedingly rare in developed countries, and so even if disabled students are mainstreamed into regular classrooms, their teachers may be unable to cope with the needs of these students. Furthermore, IE's success is significantly hindered if teachers who are implementing mainstreaming practices in their classrooms do not know what their role is, which happens frequently (Jelas, 2000).

The second problem hindering IE development is lack of funding. Special needs education is more costly than regular education, and most developing nations cannot afford to adequately fund education for students that do not have special needs, let alone those who do (Eleweke & Rodda, 2002). The prevailing opinion in many developing countries is that special needs students will not become fully functional members of society so it is essentially a waste of precious resources to educate them when the country cannot afford to educate the mainstream students.

Also, there is the universal problem that non-government organizations and charities, when donating money, often stipulate how it is to be used, and often donated educational funds cannot go towards IE and special needs education. Even if the funds can go towards these areas, frequently the funding must be used to support programs and objectives that do not function well in the particular country (Eleweke & Rodda, 2002).

Thirdly, there is often a lack of legislation that mandates IE and establishes policies detailing how it is to be carried out. Eleweke and Rodda (2002) said that "in the absence of any mandatory order stipulating what services are to be provided, by whom, how, when and where, a laissez faire attitude prevails in the provision of educational services for learners with disabilities in many (developing countries)" (p. 119). Since IE is not mandated in many areas and financial and education resources are already stretched to the limit, a country may face little incentive to invest precious resources and effort into programs that may seem, to them, unnecessary.

Patricia Potts (1998), a UK professor, spent May 1990 as a visiting Fellow at the University of Hong Kong. As part of her fellowship, she led workshops for school psychologists and the government's Education Department inspectors. In her work, she was assisted by Education Officer May Lee. In the course of their work together, Lee unexpectedly asked Potts if she believed "education for all was a luxury for the First World" (p. 118). This comment was somewhat contradictory to earlier views Lee had seemed to express about the rights of all people to education. Potts reported that Lee's comment caused her to think more clearly about her assumption that educators as a whole maintain the same values and attitudes. In particular, Potts (2003) stated that developing countries often have a more economical attitude towards education, believing that it makes the most economic sense to devote education resources towards those members of society who seem to have the most potential for growth and eventual productivity. In this view, special needs or disabled students do not fall under this category.

Although many human rights organizations are pushing strongly for IE in developing countries and many nations are launching IE initiatives and programs, these significant problems will continue to represent real and pressing barriers to its implementation and success.

Viewpoints

Some Positive Findings

This is not to say that IE is universally problematic and of less interest to teachers and school systems in developing countries. For example, a study of IE in a Malaysian primary school showed that three of the mainstream teachers surveyed were very positive about the placement of special needs children into their classrooms. They felt the movement was a positive challenge to their teaching professionalism and that the mainstreamed students benefited from their placement into a regular classroom (Jelas, 2000). This is important because teacher attitudes have been the deciding factor why many education programs have failed (Mushoriwa, 2001). Therefore, it is most likely that these three teachers' positive attitudes toward IE significantly helped it be a successful program.

Parents are often very supportive of IE and can be important forces in encouraging its use. In the Malaysian study, three mothers of IE students stated that although their special needs children might be receiving less of an education than if they were in a special needs class, it was more important that their children be in a regular classroom, interacting with their peers, and being treated as "normal" (Jelas 2000).

IE in Malaysia

Malaysia is not the only country willing to accept the idea of IE. Stough (2003) said that for a number of decades, Costa Rica's public education system did not have any accommodations whatsoever for disabled people - however, two forces encouraged its implementation. One was a very small education budget that meant that social services for the disabled and the non-disabled were often co-mingled. The second force was the tolerant and accepting Costa Rican culture that embraced IE.

IE in Uganda

Uganda is also another nation that believes that all people, disabled or non-disabled, have a right to education. Uganda's government "regards education as a basic human right for all its citizens, including those with barriers to learning and development" (Kristensen, Magor-Loican, & Onen

2003 p. 194). Inclusive education is seen as ideal for teaching all learners, even though the government recognizes that mainstream, inclusive classrooms will not fit the needs of some severely disabled individuals better than special education classrooms. Uganda's Universal Primary Education Programme of 1998 allowed four children per family to receive a free education, and children with special needs received top priority. Uganda also has two specific programs to help IE: the Uganda National Institute of Special Education which helps train teachers and school staff in inclusive education and special education and the Special Needs Education/Educational Assessment and Resource Service (Kristensen, Magor-Loican, & Onen, 2003).

Furthermore, since education resources are so scarce in developing countries, IE may be the only way that large numbers of special needs students can be educated (Mushoriwa 2001). As stated above, only 2% of the disabled people in developing countries receive assistance and rehabilitation. Presently, only a very small number of special needs students in developing countries are educated in special needs schools. IE shows promise as a way of helping EFA be accomplished and special needs students receive the same education opportunities as mainstream students.

A Question of Implementation

It is clear that many nations and cultures are supportive about the idea of IE and willing to help special needs students be placed into mainstream classrooms, believing it is of value to all students. However, the problem still lies with implementing IE and assuring that it is carried out to its full capacity. The Malaysian teachers (both mainstream and special needs) interviewed in the primary school study made several suggestions and comments about what would be helpful in implementing IE. They recommended that before a special needs child be placed in a mainstream classroom, he or she have a period of accommodation where students from the mainstream classroom would befriend the special needs student so the transition would be easier. The teachers also spoke of a need for clarity in their roles, one teacher commenting, "No one really knows what to do" (Jelas 2000).

Furthermore, there is also the pressing question about the quality of education that these special needs students are receiving in mainstream classroom. As Jelas (2000) said, the three mothers interviewed gave very high priority to the fact that their children were with the regular students and liked the fact that their children were no longer in special needs classrooms. Montana (1994) said that a fifteen year old Benin student with severe psycho-motor disabilities had been considered cursed by his family. Once the family was persuaded to place the teenager in school and he began to learn to write with his feet, their perspectives changed as his classmates grew to respect and admire him. It seems clear that special needs children often develop good social skills in mainstream classrooms. However not all special needs students will find such acceptance from their mainstream peers, and special need students placed into an IE setting may not be receiving the most optimal educational experience.

A study of primary school teachers in Harare, Zimbabwe found that many of them did not believe that blind students placed in a mainstream classroom were being benefited. In fact, 92% of the four hundred teachers surveyed said that the blind children were socially hindered by being placed in an IE environment, often because the regular students shunned the blind students (Mushoriwa, 2001). Another study performed by the author showed that many blind students and their teachers believed that inclusive education negatively affected blind students both socially and academically.

A study of 119 Uganda-based special needs education teachers, District Education Officers, and school inspectors indicated that 22% of them felt that special needs students could not be mainstreamed into regular classrooms. Furthermore, the general assessment was that students with sight, hearing, and physical disabilities were the best candidates for IE. However, interestingly, the teachers who dealt directly with IE and special needs students were the most positive about IE; the school inspectors had the most reservations about IE. In general the teachers that worked directly in inclusive education classrooms had a more positive response to it than school administrators (Kristensen, Magor-Loican, & Onen, 2003).

Conclusion

For IE to be successfully implemented in developing countries, there are a multitude of different barriers that must be dismantled. First, it is clear that not all nations, educators, and school administrators share the belief that the education of special needs students must be a top priority, or that IE is an effective way of educating special needs and mainstream students. Even if this was a universal concept, the logistics of implementing and carrying out IE will be significantly hindered until necessary funding, resources, and well-trained teachers are available, particularly in developing countries. While IE offers many benefits and is potentially the best or in some cases the only way special needs students can be educated, it is a process requiring much work and dedication on the part of all who are invested in education.

Terms & Concepts

Developing Countries: Countries with relatively low standards of living, income per person, and Gross Domestic Product.

Disabled: The state of someone having a long-term mental or physical impairment that affects his or her daily life and activities.

Inclusive Education: A classroom setting where special education students are in a mainstream classroom with non-special needs students rather than having special needs and non-special needs students segregated into different classrooms.

Mainstream: Non-special needs: the regular population.

Mainstreaming: The act of implementing inclusive education and incorporating special education students into mainstream classrooms.

Non-Government Organization (NGO): A group of individuals who work towards a particular cause, usually human rights or development such as education.

Primary Education: Equates to grades 1-6.

Special Education: Education, rehabilitation, and learning resources for students who are disabled.

Special Needs: Often used synonymously with "disabled," however, special needs may include students who have particular emotional difficulties or lifestyle issues.

Bibliography

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Charema, J. (2007). From special schools to inclusive education: the way forward for developing countries south of the Sahara. Journal of the International Association of Special Education 8 , 88-97. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=26375235&site=ehost-live

Eleweke, C.J., & Rodda, M. (2002). The challenge of enhancing inclusive education in developing countries. International Journal of Inclusive Education 6 , 113-126. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=6373613&site=ehost-live

Hallahan, D.P (1998). International perspectives on special education reform. European Journal of Special Needs Education 13 , 123-127. Retrieved November 29, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=6682086&site=ehost-live

Jelas, Z.M. (2000). Perceptions of inclusive practices: the Malaysian perspective. Education Review 52, 187-196. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=3394195&site=ehost-live

Kristensen, K, Magor-Loican, M, Onen, N. (2003). The inclusion of learners with barriers to learning and development into ordinary school settings: a challenge for Uganda. British Journal of Special Education 30, 194-201. Retrieved December 14, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=11843666&site=ehost-live

Miller, K.J., Morfidi, E., & Soulis, S. (2013). Teachers' perceptions of Greek special education policies and practices. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 16, 53-65. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=85952610&site=ehost-live

Montana, C. (1994, July/August). Integration not segregation. UNESCO Sources 60, 22.

Montana, C. (1994, July/August). Integration not segregation. UNESCO Sources 60, 22. Retrieved December 14, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9410057521&site=ehost-live

Mushoriwa, T. (2001). A study of the attitudes of primary school teachers in Harare towards the inclusion of blind children in regular classes. British Journal of Special Education 28, 142-147. Retrieved December 12, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5191041&site=ehost-live

Potts, P. (1998). 'A luxury for the First World': a Western perception of Hong King Chinese attitudes towards inclusive education. Disability & Society 13 , 113-124. Retrieved December 14, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14019156&site=ehost-live

Stough, L.M. (2003). Special education and severe disabilities in Costa Rica: Developing inclusion in a developing country. Research & Practice for Persons with Severe Disabilities 28 , 7-15. Retrieved December 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=10158630&site=ehost-live

Winzer, M., & Mazurek, K. (2012). Analyzing inclusive schooling for students with disabilities in international contexts: Outline of a model. Journal of International Special Needs Education, 15, 12-23. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90184456&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Dart, G. (2006). 'My eyes went wide open' - an evaluation of the special needs education awareness course at Molepolole College of Education, Botswana. British Journal of Special Education 33, 130-138. Retrieved December 14, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22063053&site=ehost-live

Landsdown, G. (1998). The rights of disabled children. International Journal of Children's Rights 6 , 221-227. Retrieved December 14, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12609440&site=ehost-live

Olusanya, B. (2004). Classification of childhood hearing impairment: implications for rehabilitation in developing countries. Disability & Rehabilitation 26 , 1221-1228. Retrieved December 14, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14573562&site=ehost-live