Industrial and Work-Based Education

Work-based education can be formal training, informal training, and embedded learning. Most consider formal training to be scheduled instruction delivered by a designated trainer in a classroom instructor or other environment either in the workplace or off site. Informal training can be considered casual education that is provided by coworkers or supervisors during regular work time. Embedded learning does not involve interaction between employees and trainers, which formal and informal training do. Instead, embedded learning is solitary in nature and can take the form of written manuals, computerized training, and online, interactive materials available through public or private websites (Stern et al., 2004).

Keywords Assessment; Corporate Trainers; Cost-Benefit Analysis; Hard Skills; Needs Analysis; Objectives; Outcomes; Soft Skills; Training

Overview

Work-based education is big business in America. According to the American Society for Training & Development, in 2006 companies in the United States spent almost $130 billion on employee education and development, which roughly equates to $1,040 per employee. In 2012 the figure was $164.2 billion — and this after a prolonged nationwide downsizing of the U.S. workforce (Miller, 2013). These figures represent direct costs, such as training staff salaries, administrative costs, delivery costs, and workshop costs (ASTD, 2007a).

Work-based education can be formal training, informal training, and embedded learning. Most consider formal training to be “scheduled instruction delivered by a designated trainer in a classroom or similar setting, whether in the workplace or elsewhere. Informal training has referred to unscheduled instruction or coaching provided by co-workers or supervisors during work” (Barron et al, 1997; U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics, 1996a,b, as cited in Stern, Song & O'Brien, 2004). Embedded learning does not involve interaction between employees and trainers, which formal and informal training do. Instead, embedded learning is solitary in nature and can take the form of written manuals, computerized training, and online, interactive materials available through public or private websites (Stern et al., 2004).

Trainer Strategies

When funds are short, training is usually one of the first budget items to be cut. Trainers need to be able to provide effective training and be able to show management that the training offered is effective and will pay off in the long run. According to Caudron (2000), some strategies that can be used include:

• Linking training objectives to the company's strategies. Trainers can look at the company's annual report, ask for the top few objectives of each department, and gain an understanding of the company's goals and strategies. By understanding the company's specific objectives, they can help assure that employees are all moving in the same direction.

• Addressing the company's culture. Many times simply presenting the information to employees is not enough. There may be cultural barriers that affect employees' ability to learn and their willingness to be empowered and take risks if the company's culture has traditionally been the opposite. An effective trainer needs to understand the company's climate and address any issues that may get in the way of the training objectives.

• Focusing on training outcomes. Before beginning the process of developing the training, trainers should determine the results the company wants to see come from the training. If there are clear objectives that need to be met, it is easier to develop the appropriate training and how those objectives will be measured if trainers know what the end results of the training sessions should be.

• Willingly embrace different learning methods. The traditional style of training, which is usually standing up in front of a room and instructing, is only one way employees can learn. Trainers should be willing to look at alternative, proven ways adults learn and be willing to incorporate different strategies into their training program.

• Allowing employees enough time to process what they have been taught. Higher-order skills, such as creativity and critical thinking, require more time to learn; so it is important for trainers to find a way to give employees more time to process the information and gain an understanding of the concepts being presented.

• Being discriminating of training suppliers. When looking to select prepackaged lessons or bring in outside assistance for training, it is important to make sure that the outside vendors adhere to the same principles addressed above to help ensure that employees are getting relevant, effective training (Caudron, 2000, p. 36-37).

Developing a Training Program

Chang (1994) suggests the following steps to develop an effective training program:

• Conduct a needs analysis, determine if and how training may help improve job performance, and create training outcomes.

• Select the training approach or approaches that can best support the training outcomes and improve job performance.

• Produce all necessary training tools, such as handouts, visual aids, etc.

• Use appropriate training techniques to present the materials.

• Conduct assessments to determine whether the training did help improve job performance and redesign or tweak the training as necessary.

• Report assessment results to all stakeholders.

• Continue to follow through with assessment to make sure participants are still using what they learned in training (Chang, 1994).

A needs analysis should be completed in order to identify training needs, to make sure that training addresses the need and that it is, in fact, necessary. Once training has been determined to be necessary, it is then necessary to create training objectives and design a training approach, taking into consideration who the participants will be.

Types of Training Approaches

There are different learning approaches that can be used either separately or in conjunction with each other:

Training by lecture, in which the trainer delivers the material to the class. This is the most frequently used method.

• Structured discussion: conversations between participants facilitated by the trainer.

• A panel discussion, which is short lectures or a discussion by a variety of trainers or experts in the field, rather than just one person.

• Case studies, which are written descriptions of relevant situations that contain enough details so participants can discus specifics and come to conclusions.

• Skill application reenacts specific situations so that participants can create their own on-the-job situations of issues and get input from the trainer and other participants.

• Simulation gives a detailed description of a situation that contains programmed decision points that teams of participants can discuss (Chang, 1994).

Producing the necessary training tools includes determining what can be produced based on budget restrictions; making sure that the materials are appropriate for the audience, such as making sure that materials for new employees are not laden with industry jargon or are too technical in nature; and making sure that that all materials are accurate and up to date.

Using appropriate training techniques means making sure that effective delivery skills are used, including proper nonverbal and verbal skills, so that participants are able to understand what is being presented, are actively engaged in their own learning, and are able to retain what has been presented.

Assessment can be accomplished by conducting pre- and post-tests, having participants demonstrate the skills they have learned, and conducting follow up assessments to determine if the company as a whole achieved positive results because of the training. Assessment should be ongoing to make sure that participants are still using what they have learned long after training is complete and also to ascertain whether follow-up sessions or additional training is necessary (Chang, 1994).

Evaluating Training

The participants' response to the training should be measured. Trainers should try to determine whether participants found the program design and materials appropriate, interesting, and usable and if they found the trainer knowledgeable and helpful. Trainers should also try to assess if participants learned what they were supposed to learn from the training. Sometime after training has been completed, or after a suitable time for ongoing training, it should be determined if participants are actually using it on the job, making the training useful and effective. Company-focused results should also be evaluated to be able to show the link between training and the results desired by the organization. This can be difficult to prove in some cases because other internal and external factors can also contribute to something like an increase in sales-a competitor goes out of business, prices were lowered, etc. The overall organizational impact should also be measured by looking at pre-training data and post-training measurements. All of these measurements can help show the benefit of training (Wade, 1998).

In evaluating company-focused results, the results can be generally broken down into two categories: hard skills and soft skills. Saving time, increasing production, lowering cost, and increasing quality are examples of hard skills. Soft skills are more difficult to measure and can include improved work practices, better management or team skills, increased initiative, and improved company climate or culture. There are four kinds of measures that can be used in analyzing hard skills (Wade, 1998):

• Time. Is there a decrease in the amount of overtime, an improvement of on-time deliveries, a decrease in turnaround time, an increase in the number of commitments completed on time, etc.

• Output. Has there been an increase in the number of sales, the percentage of new clients, the number of products produced, etc.

• Quality. Is there a decrease in the amount of work that had to be redone, a decrease in the number of production problems, an increase in the number of jobs successfully completed, etc.

• Cost. Has there been a decrease in inventory costs, replacement costs, overtime costs, additional employee costs, etc.

Soft skills are more difficult to measure because they are usually based on employees' behaviors and attitudes, but they can be measured to some degree. There are four kinds of measures that can be used in analyzing soft skills (Wade, 1998):

• Work Practices. Is there an improvement in attendance, a decrease in the number of safety violations, a decrease in employee tardiness, an increase in the number of people willing to work overtime, etc.

• Management/Team Skills. Is there an improvement in the use of active listening skills, an increase in the number of conflicts successfully handled, an increase of team decision-making opportunities, etc.

• Promotion Potential and Initiative. Is there an increase in the number of new ideas implemented, the number of training sessions or conferences attended, number of projects successfully completed, etc.

• Climate/Culture. Is there a decrease in the number of discrimination complaints filed, number of employee grievances filed, employee turnover rate, etc.

Training Techniques for Adult Learners

Adults learn differently than children. For many adults, they must want to learn in order to learn. It has also been contended that adults only learn what they feel they need to learn, which can really put pressure on trainers to make sure participants understand the relevance of the training. Adults also learn by doing, by being able to solve practical, real-life problems, by applying what they have already done and know and by having the trainer use a variety of training methods (Wilson, 1994).

First and foremost, trainers must be knowledgeable about the subject matter they are going to present, especially since they are going to be presenting to people who may already be familiar with the subject matter and have difficult questions to ask. Trainers must also be adept at verbal and nonverbal delivery because it does not make any difference if they are the most knowledgeable person in the world on the subject if they cannot express their ideas and thoughts in a way that participants can understand and relate to. Nonverbal skills, such as hand gestures, body movements, facial expressions, and the amount of eye contact made can affect how a trainer is perceived and accepted by the participants.

Since most adults prefer visuals and handouts for reference, it is important to create effective program materials. When producing visuals for display in the room, it is important that they be visible and easy to read by everyone in the room. Visuals should also be kept simple with just keywords or phrases and not full sentences and paragraphs, which are difficult to read and remember. All information presented should be updated and factual. Even one piece of outdated material can reflect poorly on the entire presentation and cast doubt about the accuracy and relevance of everything else being presented. Materials should also be interesting in order to command participants' attention and keep them engaged; and practical so that participants are able to easily relate to them and know what they represent (Wilson, 1994).

When training adult employees, it can be helpful to use different adult learning principles. One study found that the most effective type of training for adults was relevant, similar to the job, provided objectives, and allowed trainees to participate. Relevance is an important component of any training program because adults need to easily be able to see for themselves why they are there, which can help keep them engaged. If training is similar to what occurs on the job, it makes it a lot easier for participants to transfer what they have learned in training to the job. This can partially be accomplished by presenting the information so that it closely resembles actual workplace conditions, presenting in the workplace if possible, or having participants help with similarity by bringing materials with them or freely sharing the knowledge they have in training through discussion, participation, and role playing.

By providing objectives to participants at the beginning of training, participants are able to see the overall picture of what they are expected to learn and know what will be covered and in what order. Having the objectives also allows them to judge for themselves if they are learning, which also gives them an opportunity to do some follow up if necessary. Active participation allows participants to interact with coworkers and the trainer. This helps create an atmosphere where participants feel free to share their thoughts and ideas and ask questions. By keeping these principles in mind, adults are more likely to be engaged, actively learn, and transfer what they have learned in class to their jobs (Gaibraith & Fouch, 2007).

Outsourcing

In larger organizations where it is necessary to implement system-wide training programs, outsourcing is popular as a means of producing quick, cost-effective training. As of 2006, training outsourcing was about $1 billion business and is expected to grow. For companies that provide training, companies that are geographically far flung and do not have training programs already in place can provide them with rather lucrative business contracts in the millions of dollars. A few examples of training outsourcing contracts for 2006 and 2007 include an $18 million multi-year contract, a $67 million five-year contract, a $127 million five-year contract, and a $340 million ten-year contract ("Training Outsourcing to Exceed $1 Billion," 2007). Mergers are also making outsourcing of training more popular. When a merger occurs, there are a lot of people who need to be trained about the new company, what its values and vision are, and what new skills they will be expected to know ("Mergers Transforming Outsourced Training," 2006).

Viewpoints

Some issues that corporate trainers have to deal with are that the people who need the training most are not the ones sent or the ones who voluntarily come; that management often wants a course to be shortened, which does not afford enough time needed to meet all the course objectives and effectively present the training; and that sometimes trainers are even undermined by managers who tell their employees that they may be being taught to do something one way but they want them to do it a different way. With these potential obstacles in mind, Ketter (2006) suggests there are a few ways that trainers can get management's support for employee training and development programs:

• Trainers should link the training to the company's business plan and goals to show why the training can be useful to employees.

• Trainers can also involve participants' managers during the needs analysis portion of training development. This will show managers that their employees will be learning competencies that can help improve the way business is done.

• Trainers should report the results of the needs analysis and send managers a proposed course outline so that they can see how the training can help their employees and take any comments received by managers into consideration when fine tuning the course.

• Trainers can also gather the managers together for a brief meeting a few weeks before the training begins to tell them again about the course, hopefully get their buy-in, and then they will encourage their employees to attend - or require that they participate.

• Trainers can also have managers who are supportive of the proposed training program come to a training session and help present in their areas of expertise.

• Trainers should gather the participants together after a few weeks so they can report on the benefits they have received from the training and conduct a cost-benefit analysis to show the practical success of the training (Ketter, 2006).

The Bureau of Labor Statistics projects that by 2010 the country will face a shortage of 10 million skilled workers (cited in Gaibraith & Fouch, 2007), which means even more training may be necessary than currently exists. By following sound training techniques, adult learning theories, and conducting appropriate follow up, training programs can satisfy even the most skeptical person and prove that they can help improve a company's bottom line by helping employees become more productive and confident in their jobs, which can also help reduce employee turnover rates.

Terms & Concepts

Assessment: Assessment is the act of judging the value of the training.

Cost-Benefit Analysis: A cost-benefit analysis is a technique used to weigh the benefits of a project against the cost of the resources it requires to determine its feasibility.

Hard Skills: Hard skills are specific skills that are easy to observe, quantify, and measure.

Needs Analysis: Needs analysis is a way of identifying any gaps in the skills a company requires and those the employees provide. The analysis is a gathering of research that is used to identify areas where employees should work on improving their skills and performance. The analyses are usually performed through surveys, observations, and meetings.

Outcomes: Outcomes are the results or consequences brought about by a cause.

Soft Skills: Soft skills are often intangible and more a function of personality characteristics.

Bibliography

ASTD (2007a). Industry statistics. Retrieved November 15, 2007, from http://www.astd.org

ASTD (2007b). Excellence in practice awards. Retrieved November 18, 2007, from http://www.astd.org/ASTD/aboutus/AwardsandBestPractices/excellenceInPracticeAwards/

http://www.astd.org/ASTD/aboutus/AwardsandBestPractices/excellenceInPracticeAwards/

Blaschke, L. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 13, 56-71. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=71275487&site=ehost-live

Caudron, S. (2000). Learning revives training. Workforce, 79, 34. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2681520&site=ehost-live

Chang, R. (1994). Developing high-impact training. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.

Freifeld, L. (2013). Solving today's skill gaps. Training, 50, 52-57. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91983125&site=ehost-live

Gaibraith, D. & Fouch, S. (2007). Principles of adult learning. Professional Safety, 52, 35-40. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26502803&site=ehost-live

Ketter, P. (2006). Management's commitment to training. T+D, 60 , 95. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22778062&site=ehost-live

Mergers transforming outsourced training. (2006). Workforce Management, 85,70. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23544228&site=ehost-live

Miller, L. (2013). ASTD's 2013 state of the industry report: Workplace learning. T+D, 67, 40-45. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91659526&site=ehost-live

Stern, D., Song, Y. & O'Brien, B. (2004). Company training in the United States 1970-2000: What have been the trends over time? International Journal of Training & Development, 8 , 191-209. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=14078994&site=ehost-live

Training outsourcing to exceed $1 billion in 2007. (2007). Corporate Training & Development Advisor, 12 , 5-7. Retrieved November 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=24954619&site=ehost-live

Wade, P. (1998). Measuring the impact of training. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.

Wilson, J. (1994). Applying successful training techniques. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Pfeiffer.

Suggested Reading

Ahlstrand, A., Bassi, L. & McMurrer, D. (2003). Workplace education for low-wage workers. Kalamazoo, MI: W.E. Upjohn Institute.

Forrester, K., Payne, J. & Ward, K. (1995). Workplace learning: Perspectives on education, training and work. Brookfield, VT: Avebury.

Gray, K. & Herr, E. (1997). Workforce education: The basics. Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Rojewski, J. (2004). Workforce education and development: New views for a new century. Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.