Instructional Modeling

This article explores modeling as an instructional methodology in a variety of educational contexts. Modeling occurs whenever a teacher demonstrates a concept or skill for a student. Additionally, modeling occurs whenever individuals learn behaviors, attitudes, values, and beliefs through observation. Discussion focuses on the various definitions and benefits of modeling. A wide range of applicable educational situations are highlighted including modeling for reading comprehension and music instruction, modeling for demonstration of life skills for visually impaired students, and modeling sustainability and environmentally sound practices in school settings. Issues and alternative viewpoints are also discussed with regard to the negative effects of excessive modeling and the complexity and difficulty faced when attempting to model for instructional purposes.

Keywords Aural Modeling; Modeling; Social Learning Theory; Sustained Silent Reading (SSR); Tactile Modeling; Think Aloud

Teaching Methods > Instructional Modeling

Overview

Haston (2007) indicates that modeling occurs whenever a teacher demonstrates a concept for a student. In its most basic form, a teacher models for students by working through a sample problem, demonstrating how to perform a particular task, dictating his or her thought process out loud when reading or solving a difficult problem, etc. Modeling occurs frequently in classrooms as students often need an example to follow before attempting to fully apply a particular skill on their own. Teacher modeling is often the first step in the learning process, followed by guided practice and eventually individual application without assistance. The overall goal of modeling, as an instructional methodology, is to provide an example for students to follow in order to be able to integrate a particular behavior, successfully perform a task, or acquire a specific skill on their own. Teacher modeling is also used in co-teaching contexts where the experienced teacher can provide effective modeling for a teacher candidate, who would be able to use it in his or her own future classroom Patel & Kramer, 2013).

Modeling is not only an effective instructional methodology; it is also a process that occurs naturally outside of the academic context. Haston (2007) extends the definition of modeling as a process through which individuals learn behaviors, attitudes, values, and beliefs through observations. Not only do teachers model for academic purposes, they also model through their everyday actions and communication with students about beliefs, values, and attitudes. Many teachers serve as role models for youth, thereby modeling appropriate behavior and attitude. Chiou & Yang (2006) suggest that when students recognize teachers as role models, teachers have a direct impact on what students learn. Higgs & McMillan (2006) support the notion that teachers act as models for students. They claim most students generally view teachers as competent individuals and therefore internalize the behaviors and attitudes observed and experienced in the classroom setting. Methe & Hintze (2003) further support the assertion that school leaders, teachers, and classroom assistants influence student behavior through demonstrating and modeling desired behavior. Ideally, acquisition of desired behaviors during instructional sessions is followed by generalization of these behaviors to contexts similar to classroom activities for all participants (Ledford & Wolery, 2013).

Social learning theory as discussed by Bandura (1977, 1986; cited in Methe & Hintze, 2003) further illuminates the modeling process as observational in nature. Learning often takes place in the absence of direct reinforcement as people learn naturally through imitation of models (Haston, 2007). Just as a young child mimics words heard in a conversation, people, in general, aim to emulate behaviors observed. Bandura (1977) claims that highly valued individuals can have positive effects on other individuals and can thereby encourage desirable behavior through ongoing visual feedback. Methe & Hintze (2003) suggest that teachers act as facilitators of desirable behavior and thus are often in the position of highly valued individuals with much influence over student behavior and attitude.

Higgs & McMillan (2006) highlight that research strongly indicates modeling is an effective way to teach knowledge, skills and behaviors. They also assert that effective modeling motivates students to learn and helps them to develop core values. When students are exposed to multiple models whether academic or value based, behaviors and skills are often learned quickly and efficiently as students internalize observed models and integrate observed behaviors and values with their own.

Benefits of Modeling

Riva & Korinek (2004) indicate modeling has been demonstrated to be an effective instructional methodology in a variety of contexts. They specifically highlight modeling as an effective process for teaching and learning complex problem solving, evaluation, writing tasks, leadership, and communication among others. In an academic setting, students benefit greatly from exposure to instructional models because they are able to develop clear understandings of expectations for both process and product. Once students observe a teacher model exactly how to follow a specific process or how to perform a particular task, they are much more likely to be successful when it comes to applying the skills learned.

Additionally, teachers are not always the only individuals modeling in classroom settings. Peers often model for instructional purposes by guiding each other through acquisition of specific skills or through processes necessary for successful completion of tasks, etc. When peers model for each other, both individuals benefit tremendously from the teaching and learning relationship. When a student is able to effectively model or teach a particular concept or skill to another individual, he or she takes on the role of a teacher and thereby demonstrates a complete understanding of the concept or skill taught. Furthermore, peer modeling encourages strong peer relationships and increased self-esteem and self-confidence.

Riva & Korinek (2004) support the notion that modeling is effective when direct learning outcomes are intended, but can be equally as powerful when no teaching or learning is intended at all. Haston (2007) discusses how modeling allows students to learn naturally and intuitively. When teachers effectively model behaviors, attitudes, and values, students absorb and integrate what they observe with little, if any, direct instruction. Therefore, teachers model and students learn without actually being aware that teaching and learning is occurring. Haston (2007) further highlights that, as students improve as a direct result of modeling, they begin to become more independent and creative in their own thought processes. Once they acquire the skills necessary via modeling, students are often able to build upon learned skills to develop their own understandings.

Applications

As discussed, modeling occurs in a variety of educational contexts from direct instructional methodologies to more implicit and natural situations. The following section focuses on a variety of applicable situations in which modeling plays a major role. Modeling as a direct teaching methodology is explored in the context of both reading and music instruction. Next, modeling as an instructional technique for visually impaired students is discussed. Finally, modeling of behaviors, attitudes and values is highlighted in the context of sustainability and environmentally sound practices in schools.

Modeling Reading Instruction

Methe & Hintze (2003) discuss the findings of many researchers regarding the impact of teacher modeling on reading instruction. They assert that teacher modeling is a common element identified across a variety of reading programs and they highlight the strong relationship between on-task reading behavior and teacher modeling. When teachers model on-task reading behaviors and demonstrate for students why reading is important and critical to success, students are more likely to be on-task when reading (Methe & Hintze, 2003). One specific way teachers model on-task reading involves a common practice, Sustained Silent Reading (SSR). During SSR, students are required to read a book of their choice silently, on their own, without interruption for a specified period of time. Teachers that model on-task behavior by reading a book of their choice as students read, implicitly communicate to students the importance of reading.

Walker (2005) discusses the direct effects of teacher modeling on reading comprehension via the think-aloud technique. When teachers articulate their thought process for students and make strategies they use to comprehend text transparent to students, students are more likely to apply such strategies when reading on their own. Walker (2005) asserts modeling of the think-aloud technique promotes strategy use, self-efficacy, and increased engagement in the reading process and comprehension of text. She claims that struggling readers directly benefit from teachers who model their own thoughts and self-statements as they read.

When teaching reading comprehension strategies, teachers model a variety of techniques that assist with comprehension of text. Teachers may model the prediction process by articulating predictions out loud as they read a text to students. They may model thoughtful questions by pausing and asking different questions while reading. Teachers may model connection making by detailing, out loud, specific connections they make between the text and their own lives. Through active listening and direct observation of strategies teachers use to comprehend text, students slowly, but surely, begin to integrate such strategies and techniques into their own reading.

Modeling in Music Education

Whereas modeling in reading instruction is most effective when teachers think out loud and clearly articulate their thought process for students, modeling in music education works in the opposite way, and is most effective when students are exposed to minimal verbal explanation of what a teacher is thinking while playing a musical instrument (Haston, 2007). Haston (2007) asserts that the most appropriate use of modeling in a music classroom occurs when teachers teach new musical concepts or demonstrate specific performance skills without reference to printed music. He further asserts that modeling can occur via live performance or recordings, in group settings or in individual instruction, or by encouraging older students to model for younger students via peer mentoring relationships.

Haston (2007) claims that music instruction lends itself primarily to aural modeling processes because students learn implicitly by listening and aiming to match what they hear via the model. A choral director or teacher may model staccato for students by demonstrating it using the voice or an instrument and then requiring students to repeat. A string teacher may model how to hold the bow, where to place it and how to hold the fingers when playing a string instrument. Haston (2007) further asserts that all music teachers can model good and poor tone quality, style, diction, articulation and phrasing in addition to a variety of other musical concepts and understandings.

However, he illuminates that despite all of the evidence indicating the benefits of modeling in music instruction, researchers in various studies claim that modeling is employed only 10 to 25 percent of the time in music education classes (Haston, 2007). Should music educators expect students to better emulate musical performance skills and acquire deeper understandings of musical concepts, they need to employ modeling techniques more frequently in classroom settings.

Modeling for Visually Impaired Students

Modeling is a strategy largely used with visually impaired students to help them acquire life skills necessary to be successful. O'Connell et al. (2006) highlight specific modeling strategies that are employed when teaching visually impaired students, such as tactile modeling, physical guidance and demonstration. As students are taught a modeled process, they are able to reproduce the actions and increase their understanding of what they need to do (O'Connell et al., 2006). O'Connell et al. (2006) further state that once students understand what they need to do to perform a specific skill, they are able to create a mental picture of the process based on the model and are therefore able to reproduce the specific action or skill.

Tactile modeling and physical guidance are two specific modeling techniques used for instructional purposes with visually impaired students. Tactile modeling involves participation via touch that can help a student learn and understand a skill by feeling and exploring the model's body in the direction of movement (O'Connell et al., 2006). Tactile modeling enables a student to take control over his or her learning as he or she is able to choose specific movements to focus on for information gathering purposes (O'Connell et al., 2006). Physical guidance differs slightly in that the student performs a particular movement with the model to better understand the feel, rhythm, and motion of the movement being instructed (O'Connell et al., 2006). The model literally places the student's body in the position necessary to perform a particular task and moves with the student to model the actions. Both forms of modeling are highly effective in helping visually impaired students understand movements behind specific skills.

O'Connell et al. (2006) highlight the research of Bandura (1997) indicating that new skills can be acquired through physical demonstration, pictorial or verbal instruction describing exactly how to perform a given task. When teachers explain verbally how to perform a specific task or demonstrate physically the process necessary, students acquire the skill quickly and efficiently. Bandura (1997) asserts the most effective way of translating information about how to perform a specific skill or action to a visually impaired student is via proficient modeling.

Modeling Sustainability in Schools

Higgs & McMillan (2006) discuss multiple ways educators can model environmental sustainability in schools with the goals of helping students better understand concepts related to sustainability and incorporate sustainable practices into their daily behaviors. The researchers primarily focus on four distinct ways in which schools model sustainability: role modeling, modeling via campus facilities and operations, modeling via school governance, and modeling via school culture. Although the researchers directly discuss the effects of modeling on sustainability and environmentally sound practices, the information extrapolated from their research with regard to modeling can be applied in a variety of educational contexts for a variety of purposes, not just sustainability.

The most direct form of modeling with the most impact on student attitudes and beliefs involves observed behaviors that promote sustainability (Higgs & McMillan, 2006). When teachers model sustainable practices such as recycling empty cans, using recycled paper, driving hybrid cars, and conserving energy, students are more likely to integrate these behaviors into their daily lives. Direct observation of such behaviors in trusted adults results in changed behaviors on behalf of students primarily because students observe these behaviors daily and begin to incorporate what they learn via observation into their own daily actions.

Higgs & McMillan (2006) further discuss the role that campus facilities and operations play in teaching students about sustainability. They assert that by making "green" facilities and the operations necessary to sustain "green" practices transparent to students, students are more likely to become directly involved in maintaining and promoting such environmentally sound practices. Higgs & McMillan (2006) claim that by involving students in the operations of the school, students gain a deeper understanding and appreciation for the waste, consumption, inequities, governance and economics of the school as these components become much more visible and tangible. The more effort schools put forth to model sustainability via environmentally sound facilities and operations, the greater the impact on student behaviors, attitudes and beliefs.

A third way in which schools model sustainability involves modeling via school governance. Higgs & McMillan (2006) highlight specific schools that promote sustainable practices via direct student involvement in the decision making process in order to model social equity and civic participation. By modeling the participatory process in school governance, schools give students and faculty power to influence decisions. Higgs & McMillan (2006) assert that schools modeling social equity and civic participation via shared decision making, whether for sustainability or not, empower students and help them to feel a sense of ownership of their own education.

Finally, Higgs & McMillan (2006) focus on the effects of modeling sustainability via school culture and tradition. The researchers highlight the fact that traditions, rituals and ceremonies play a major role in establishing school culture. Therefore, modeling values, beliefs and attitudes via school traditions and rituals directly impacts student behavior. Students are more likely to adopt behaviors if they continually and directly observe people and institutions that model and respect such values, rather than simply being told that it is important to hold certain values. Higgs & McMillan (2006) firmly believe that modeling helps students transfer abstract ideas into personal, tangible applications. They assert that direct observation of specific behaviors is essential if educators expect students to carry out such behaviors on their own. The more opportunities educators seize to model attitudes, beliefs and behaviors for students, the more likely students are to be prepared to integrate such values into their everyday lives.

Viewpoints

Although research highlights the fact that modeling is a highly effective strategy for increasing reading comprehension, teachers often struggle with implementing modeling techniques in the classroom. Pressley (2002) indicates the think-aloud strategy is rarely used in classrooms because of the complexity involved in modeling the actual thought process for students. Walker (2005) discusses how teachers are moving away from asking rote comprehension questions with determined answers toward more critical thinking questions involving complex comprehension processes. However, teachers continue to have difficulty implementing the think-aloud strategy. Although it should be a common practice in classrooms, it is not (Walker 2005).

One of the main reasons this particular modeling strategy is difficult to implement is because teachers need to make their thinking explicit for students. Rather than just simply performing a task or comprehending text implicitly while reading, teachers need to voice, out loud, the process they use to determine meaning from text. While this may seem simple on the surface, it is actually quite difficult to implement in the classroom setting. Furthermore, thinking aloud must occur frequently for students to actually internalize the strategies and begin to use them on their own.

An additional concern raised by researchers with regard to modeling as an effective teaching methodology involves inhibition of creativity (Gardner, 1994; cited in Haston, 2007). When modeling is used too frequently and employed to an extreme, some educators believe that modeling can, in turn, stifle a child's individuality and creativity. While it is true that modeling can have tremendous benefits for students in terms of helping to construct knowledge and shaping their beliefs, attitudes and values, teachers need to be careful with regard to the extent that modeling practices are employed in the classroom as students cannot always imitate what they see and hear. Educators also need to ensure that students evolve into independent, creative thinkers. In addition, a study of teachers responding to questions about the moral work of teaching revealed that teacher participants commonly believed that modeling is a primary means by which moral education occurs (Sanger & Osguthorpe, 2013).

Terms & Concepts

Aural Modeling: Aural modeling requires students to learn implicitly by listening and aiming to match what they hear via the model.

Modeling: Modeling occurs whenever a teacher demonstrates a concept for a student. In its most basic form, a teacher models for students by working through a sample problem, demonstrating how to perform a particular task, dictating his or her thought process out loud when reading or solving a difficult problem etc. Haston (2007) extends the definition of modeling as a process through which individuals learn behaviors, attitudes, values, and beliefs through observations.

Social Learning Theory: Social learning theory as discussed by Bandura (1977, 1986; cited in Haston, 2007) describes the modeling process as observational in nature. Learning often takes place in the absence of direct reinforcement as people learn naturally through imitation of models.

Sustained Silent Reading (SSR): During SSR, students are required to read a book of their choice silently, on their own, without interruption for a specified period of time.

Tactile Modeling: Tactile modeling involves inspection via touch that can help a student learn and understand a skill by feeling and exploring the model's body in the direction of movement.

Think Aloud: A modeling strategy used primarily in reading comprehension instruction. Teachers articulate their thought process for students and make strategies they use to comprehend text transparent to students thus encouraging students to apply such strategies when reading on their own.

Bibliography

Bandura, A. (1977). Social learning theory. Englewood Cliffs, NJ; Prentice Hall.

Bandura, A. (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control. New York: W. H. Freeman

Chiou, W. & Yang, C. (2006). Teachers modeling advantage and their modeling effects on college students' learning styles and occupational stereotypes: A case of collaborative teaching in technical courses. Adolescence, 41 , 723-737. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23600991&site=ehost-live

Gardner, H. (1994). The arts and human development. New York: Basic Books.

Haston, W. (2007). Teacher modeling as an effective teaching strategy: Modeling is a technique that can help your students learn effectively in many situations. Music Educators Journal, 93 , 26-30. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24344139&site=ehost-live

Higgs, A. & McMillan, V. (2006). Teaching through modeling: Four school's experiences in sustainability education. Journal of Environmental Education, 38 , 39-53. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23675635&site=ehost-live

Ledford, J. R., & Wolery, M. (2013). Peer modeling of academic and social behaviors during small-group direct instruction. Exceptional Children, 79, 439-458. Retrieved December 19, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88266507&site=ehost-live

Methe, S. & Hintze, J. (2003). Evaluating teacher modeling as a strategy to increase student reading behavior. School Psychology Review, 32 , 617-623. Retrieved

June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=11924948&site=ehost-live

O'Connell, M, Lieberman, L., & Petersen S. (2006). The use of tactile modeling and physical guidance as instructional strategies in physical activity for children who are blind.

Patel, N. H., & Kramer, T. A. (2013). Modeling collaboration for middle-level teacher candidates through co-teaching. Teacher Educator, 48, 170-184. Retrieved December 19, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88786116&site=ehost-livePhysical Education Teacher, 100 , 471. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=22415391&site=ehost-live

Pressley, M. (2002). Reading instruction that works: The case for balanced teaching (2nd ed.). New York: Guilford.

Riva, M. & Korinek, L. (2004). Teaching group work: Modeling group leader and member behaviors in the classroom to demonstrate group theory. Journal for Specialists in Group Work, 29 , 55-63. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=13127574&site=ehost-live

Sanger, M. N., & Osguthorpe, R. D. (2013). Modeling as moral education: Documenting, analyzing, and addressing a central belief of preservice teachers. Teaching & Teacher Education , 29167-176. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83653172&site=ehost-live

Walker, B. (2005). Thinking aloud: Struggling readers often require more than a model. The Reading Teacher, 58 , 688-692. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=16738076&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Block C., & Israel, S. (2004). The ABC's of performing highly effective think-alouds. The Reading Teacher, 58, 154-167.

De Groot, C. (2001). From description to proof. Mathematics Teaching in the Middle School, 7 , 244-248. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5760425&site=ehost-live

English, L., Fox, J., & Watters, J. (2005). Problem posing and solving with mathematical modeling. Teaching Children Mathematics, 12, 156-163. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18456815&site=ehost-live

McAlister, A., Ama, E., Barroso, C., Peters, R., & Kelder, S. (2000). Promoting tolerance and moral engagement through peer modeling. Cultural Diversity & Ethnic Minority Psychology, 6; pp. 363-373.

McGee, L. & Schickedanz, J. (2007). Repeated interactive read-alouds in preschool and kindergarten. The Reading Teacher, 60 , 742-751. Retrieved June 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24958563&site=ehost-live

Widdowson, D., Dixon, R. & Moore, D. (1996). The effect of teacher modeling of silent reading on students' engagement during silent sustained reading. Educational Psychology, 16, 171-180.

Wilen, W., & Philips, J. (1995). Teaching critical thinking: A metacognitive approach. Social Education, 59, 135-138.