Intelligence & the Plight of the Average Student

Although IQ tests provide a narrow definition of intelligence, this article considers the possibility that alternate constructs, such as creativity, can also represent a person's aptitude. Hence, a rhetorical question surrounds whether a person with an average score on conventional IQ tests yet also possesses supreme creativity would still be considered intellectually average. The second section of the article examines the average student, both in terms of academics and social behavior. In today's society, our academic system is reluctant to don students with an average classification based on the fact that the performance of "Generation Y" has been exaggerated, because teachers naturally gravitate toward gifted students, as well as the fact that No Child Left Behind has focused on remediating underdeveloped students. Further, the "environmental" or effort portion of intelligence is explored, along with a list of colleges that acknowledge such exertion, followed by programs that assist average learners. Finally, behaviorally average students — those who are neither socially advanced nor delinquent — are discussed.

Keywords: Keywords; Academic IQ; AVID; Creative IQ; Emotional Intelligence; IQ Tests; No Child Left Behind (NCLB); Socialization

Overview

Intelligence Assessment

There are batteries of tests that exist to examine a person's intelligence quotient, including the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. These IQ tests attempt to provide a snapshot of a person's overall, full scale cognitive functioning, as well as categorically profile specific competencies through an assortment of subtests-e.g., digit span, letter-number sequencing, matrix reasoning, and vocabulary (Hill, et al., 2010). Although these assessments profess to capture a person's mental abilities, the weightier question circulates around the meaning of intelligence altogether. In other words, while the aforementioned tests have been scrutinized extensively for their reliability and validity, they nevertheless satisfy the question how to measure intelligence as opposed to what is intelligence? The answer to the latter is much more amorphous, complex, and perhaps impossible to adequately define. A series of speculative inquiries often hover over the topic of intelligence that revolve around its questionable origins (e.g., nature vs. nurture; Northcott, 2005; Sesardic, 2010) and trajectory. Regarding trajectory, there are countless tales of people who underperformed in school and/or on standardized tests and eventually became intellectual giants, such as Pasteur, Edison, Einstein, La Tourneau (Skromme, 1988); or the contrary case, in which high-achieving intellectual geniuses lead prosaic, conventional lives.

An example of someone who defied such a linear scholastic-career progression is Robert J. Sternberg, who currently holds distinguished titles as the Dean of Arts and Sciences at Tufts University and the president of the American Psychological Association. His resume includes a B.A. from Yale University, where he eventually became a professor of psychology and education, and a Ph.D. from Stanford University. However, the foundation of Dr. Sternberg's impressive academic feats is rooted in poor test performance, followed by dismal expectations from his elementary school teachers who put their confidence in the high test-takers, which not surprisingly resulted in Sternberg's fulfillment of the meager expectations that were negligently extended his way (Sternberg, 1997; 2003; 2004; 2006). As a result, his professional exploits have sought to unveil the mysteries behind inexplicable concepts such as intelligence and IQ tests (Sternberg, 1998; Sternberg, Reznitskaya, & Jarvin, 2007), and in the process he has formulated several revolutionary theories.

For example, Dr. Sternberg devised a multidimensional theory of leadership called WICS (Sternberg, 2009; Sternberg & Coffin, 2010), which is an acronym that stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, and Creativity Synthesized. As the name suggests, WICS encourages the belief that intelligence does not stand alone, but is a fusion of ingredients that collaborate together and affect a person's overall cerebral dexterity. WICS has served as the basis for a college admissions initiative called Kaleidoscope, in which student applicants submit standard information (e.g., transcripts, SAT scores, reference letters, college essays) in conjunction with an additional series of exercises. Exercises required of 2009 candidates asked that they respond to scenarios from the following disciplines: film, science, politics, and, history/cultural studies. They also had to create a short story from a given prompt (e.g., "Seventeen Minutes Ago…" or "The Eleventh Commandment…"), as well as respond to practical/personal and creative cues. The creative cue was outlined as follows:

Creativity vs. Academics

Skromme (1988) wrote a captivating article that recommended a complete renovation of American education, one that emphasizes creativity over academic prowess. He asserted that by age 10, creative children should be properly identified and encouraged to exercise their ingenious visions in lieu of going down a traditionally paved academic pathway, which inevitably yields a square peg continuously rejected from the system's staunchly honored round hole. If such a transformation were to take place, the benefits would not just lend themselves to effectively educated children who would presumably find suitable creative vocations, but society, as a whole, who would greatly profit from their initiatives. Skromme deviates from our conventionally held restrictive definition of IQ by defining many categories that would reflect a person's mental agility including the more standard AIQ (Academic IQ) as well as the CIQ, or Creative IQ. AIQ refers to the regurgitation of facts such as historically significant names and dates, or the insertion of numbers into established mathematical equations. Skromme contends that although a strong AIQ provides a necessary foundation on which ideas can be expanded, its rudimentary, concrete nature exemplifies the status quo; whereas a high CIQ helps forage new, unforeseen territory. This sentiment is corroborated by a passage presented in a 1932 speech by Charles F. Kettering, former Vice President of General Motors:

A slew of generalities can describe the collective traits of people on various career tracks. For example, some characteristics of the creative innovators who have designed farm equipment include an average of 11.6 years of formal education, and that they tend to be either self-employed or work for small organizations that allow them the autonomous ability to think "outside of the box." Albert Einstein, who is perhaps the most prominent, world renowned intellectual icon, stated that, "Imagination is more important than knowledge" (cited in Skromme, 1988, p. 362). Interestingly, although Einstein was both highly intelligent and creative, he struggled in academic subjects that deviated from his beloved realm of physics. The author further describes a disheartening case of today's failed schooling through a girl with the pseudonym of "Frances," whose early test scores revealed an impressive IQ of 141, but whose CIQ, as measured by researcher Dr. E. Paul Torrance, was low. Frances was subsequently tracked throughout the next several decades, during which she attained a Ph.D. and two post-doctorate degrees. While bright and capable of conducting AIQ-oriented work, Frances was consistently criticized by her failure to pioneer groundbreaking theoretical constructs, expected from someone with such eminent academic achievements.

Currently, school systems place an exorbitant amount of confidence in standardized testing (LaFee, 2008; Policy, 2007; Popescu, 2008). On a daily basis, students take quizzes and tests that gauge whether they have sufficiently retained the material; the yearly assemblage of these examinations determines if they may transition into each subsequent grade. Moreover, high school students must take either the SAT or ACT in order to gain admission into university, and college students are required to have suitable GRE, MAT, GMAT, MCAT or LSAT scores before entering graduate school. Since college and graduate school applicants are screened based on the cross section of their grade point averages and performance on standardized tests, trial-run rehearsals are extensively attempted through appraisals such as the PSAT as well as SAT readiness programs, which have become a lucrative industry. It is likely that we all recognize ultimate extremes - in terms of both supreme intelligence as well as a lack thereof - and perhaps IQ tests can properly pinpoint these extremities, although the middle ground is a vast sea of enigmatic uncertainties. As previously discussed, our current emphasis on AIQ as opposed to CIQ may distortedly underscore the wrong qualities. However, for purposes of this article, "average" will be defined in a traditional manner, as those who have scored average within our hierarchical, test-driven society, which equates to an IQ score of 100 (Lynn, 1991) and/or a "C" grade point average. In reality, this characterization is highly arbitrary and limited, and our knowledge of "average" cannot exist without a definition of "intelligence."

Further Insights

The Academically Average Stigma

Aside from the fact that it is difficult, if not impossible, to measure intelligence, the fact remains that most of the world is probably average. Yet we live in a world where mediocrity is intolerable and therefore dressed up and embellished. This is particularly evident in younger generations who have been coddled, encouraged that the sky's the limit, and rewarded for putting forth even the most minimal amounts of effort (Warner, 2010), as evidenced in a recent popular book titled, Not Everyone Gets a Trophy: How to Manage Generation Y (Tulgan, 2009). Within this puffed-up societal context, parents and teachers are inflating commonplace ideas, grades, and performances so much so that an "average" label is considered blasphemous. An unfortunate byproduct includes a society filled with narcissistic, entitled students ("Narcissistic," 2007) who become highly disgruntled upon receipt of authentic evaluations, as evidenced through the following student email:

Another reason why "average" has become a closeted term within the realm of education is that services bestowed upon both gifted and struggling students have become the cornerstone of American schools in recent decades. Teachers have always gravitated toward exceptional learners (Kirkham, 2006) for numerous reasons. Upper-level thinkers are considered a wise investment since it is assumed that their intellectual endowments will manifest favorably for society's future in terms of furnishing doctors, lawyers, researchers, and politicians. Focusing on the best and brightest also self-servingly caters to the sense of self-worth of the teachers, as it is tremendously reinforcing to serve as the conduit for fertile minds. It must be hard for teachers not to equate the exceptional marks of quick-witted students with quality of instruction, and thus smart students make teachers feel like they excel at their craft. In addition, schools benefit financially from high-scoring students, as the funds they receive are partially based on the test performance of their student body (Dittmer, 2004; Waddell, 2001). As such, history is replete with examples of teachers who favor intellectually advanced pupils, based on the fact that they boost egos and serve as economic commodities.

On the other side of the spectrum, the advent of the No Child Left Behind Act, (NCLB), in 2001 has mandated that all students meet certain standards, and therefore on a state-to-state basis, each jurisdiction has created academic benchmarks (Taylor, 2007) that they deem meet scholastic criteria satisfactorily. Schools that do not meet their adequate yearly progress, or AYP on a regular basis are penalized harshly; teachers and administrators may be dismissed from their stations, and parents are given the option to educate their children elsewhere (Gamble-Risley, 2006). Not surprisingly, special education has become bolstered through NCLB, which positively serves otherwise low-performing students (Hardman, Rosenberg, & Sindelar, 2005). With one segment of teachers dedicated to the high performing students and another segment dedicated to low performers in order to ensure AYP, average students fall through the cracks since their ordinary needs and normative accomplishments do not draw considerable attention from either end. The shameful element of this equation is that middle-of-the-road students are the ones at the proverbial fork in the road with one path leading toward a successful and rewarding future and the other path venturing into something less productive. These are the students that can literally go in either direction, and thus it is prudent to activate any educational aspirations to ensure that they do not opt for the wayward track.

Alternate Measures of Performance

Relying on standardized tests to unquestioningly rank students into respective intellectual subcategories does not take into consideration the importance of proactive personality traits. After all, intelligence is likely a hybrid of both inborn potential, which is an unmanageable luck-of-the-draw based on hereditary, as well as environmental forces that are more responsive to manipulation and control (Segal, 1998). Hence, to some degree people can maneuver a portion of the intellectual capacity which destiny granted them, relying on industrious traits like perseverance, diligence, and motivation to help mold their strengths. Unfortunately, with dogmatic tunnel vision geared solely at the validity of tests and assessments, schools discard the hardworking yet average student to the wayside. Phillips (2008) depicts this pattern precisely:

This also factors into the college application process for universities that favor SAT/ACT scores over grade point average as telling indicators of academic potential, since standardized tests do not account for mental exertion in the same way that grades can demonstrate. In recent years, a few institutions within higher education have embraced this idea by providing the "SAT Optional" route, which emphasizes how students have actually fared in their coursework throughout the duration of high school (ACT/SAT, 1997). Many campuses that have adopted this policy have received an escalated level of interest from prospective students, including the following list of colleges and the corresponding percentage in which their application submissions have risen:

• Drew University, 19%;
• College of the Holy Cross, 41%;
• Knox, 18%;
• Lawrence University, 12% (Bruno, 2006, p. 7d).

College-Prep Programs

To help rectify the inequities that affect middle-range students, several national college preparatory programs are now geared toward students who are traditionally underrepresented within higher education (Gandara, 2002; Nelson, 2007; Pitre & Pitre, 2009). Most of the programs recruit minority students who are first-generation college students that come from low socioeconomic households, and who also happen to perform at an average academic level. Bergerson (2009) presents examples of such programs, each of which utilize an assorted scope of federally, privately, and locally funded support: TRIO, GEAR UP, AVID, MESA, IHAD, NAI, and Puente.

AVID (Advancement via Individual Determination) is one successful example. It was founded by an English teacher named Mary Catherine Swanson in 1980, who responded to the needs of an increasingly diverse population of students who became enrolled at Clairemont High School in San Diego, California (Ruenzel, 1997; Swanson, 1996). Until 1980, Clairemont High School predominately consisted of White, college-bound students who effortlessly transitioned into the next step of their academic careers upon graduating high school. At that time, San Diego Unified School District initiated a desegregation program in which parents could opt to register their children at schools of their choice, and an influx of underprivileged students enlisted at Clairemont, which had an upstanding reputation based on rigor and academic excellence. Mary Catherine Swanson immediately took action toward the changing demographics of her school through the induction of AVID, which required her to join forces with teachers in other disciplines to construct the AVID curriculum. In her words,

AVID offers challenging Advanced Placement (i.e., AP) courses amid a supportive environment through which students can refine organizational skills and productive study habits. At the program's inception, 28 of the 30 initial students entered into college, and today it has expanded to schools throughout the nation. For example, in Texas' Rio Grande Valley School System alone, 4,700 students have become affiliated with AVID since 1999 (Watt, Huerta, & Lozano, 2007).

Issues

Emotional Intelligence

Although students primarily attend school in order to expand their cognitive horizons, socialization is another imperative derivative of the education process (Berns, 2009; Kramer, et al., 2010). Starting during their most impressionable years, the entrance into school thrusts children into an arena with same-age peers and has the potential to teach advanced relational expertise that cannot be gleaned exclusively through moms and dads. Some of the social skills that children learn throughout the course of their schooling pertain to the following:

• Sharing,
• Competition,
• Winning and losing,
• Leadership,
• Conflict resolution,
• Friendship,

• Loss,

• Peer pressure,
• Romantic involvement,
• Heartbreak,
• Loneliness,
• Involvement with cliques, and
• Shyness.

Like IQ, a student's emotional intelligence, or EI, is much more complex than meets the eye (Arsenio, 2003; Esturgo-Deu & Sala-Roca, 2010; Harrington-Lueker, 1997; Liff, 2003; Liptak, 2005). The Bar-On model describes it as interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies, as well as the mechanisms that enable people to endure everyday stressors that present themselves on an ongoing basis (Bar-On, 2010).

Individuals with superior levels of emotional intelligence are personable, well liked by peers who duly integrate into a variety of social situations and take up numerous pastimes. These enviable kids are at the "top of the heap" among fellow classmates who seek out their charming ways, and they in turn enjoy the perks of popularity, especially since the formative years correspond with a time when fitting in and being known as "cool" are extremely desirable. There are a variety of extracurricular activities at school in which these kids find themselves immersed that allow them to channel their more refined social graces. For example, most schools offer multiple athletic opportunities through which these social creatures can exhibit their cooperative knack for teamwork. Countless clubs such as the debate team or key club also help students refine their verbal and leadership skills. Such extracurricular involvement is also conducive for gaining entrance into college, as involved students are rewarded for their active pursuits and praised for upholding a well-rounded lifestyle, which translates nicely into a university environment (Randinelli, 2004). Teachers are also drawn to these well-liked students and acknowledge them for the respectful mannerisms that they exhibit within the classroom, and oftentimes double as their club sponsors and/or coaches. Needless to say, these social butterflies receive copious amounts of well-deserved attention.

Conversely, students with low levels of emotional intelligence may also receive an enormous amount of attention, nurturance, and intervention, for they are the "squeaky wheels" of society who demand to be oiled. Although low emotional intelligence can materialize in a number of ways, many programs focus on reconciling problematic behaviors set forth by socially disinclined students:

• Bullying and conflict resolution programs (Graves, Frabutt, & Vigliano, 2007),
• Programs that promote social skill development (Corkum, Corbin, & Pike, 2010), and
• Programs that target depressed and anxious students (Calear & Christensen, 2010; Silvestri & Dantonio, 1996).

For the most part, participants in these prevention-based programs are selected because they display precarious social encounters like harassing classmates, disruptive conduct, withdrawn mannerisms, awkward communication skills, heightened levels of angst in social situations, or passively falling prey to dominant peer influences. In addition to preventative methods, there are numerous reparative programs or alternative schools for students who have already ventured into hazardous terrain based on their underdeveloped social skills and egregious deeds, including substance abusers and violent offenders (Breunlin, et al., 2006; Moberg & Finch, 2007). The commonalities among many of these programs include small teacher-student ratios so that individualized attention can be awarded (Bowman-Perrott, Greenwood, & Tapia, 2007), and the employment of a personalized counselor or social worker so that issues may be faced and errant behaviors can be remedied (Breu, 2010).

Once again, the average student who resides at the midway point on the emotional intelligence continuum fades into the backdrop, as there is typically a dearth of intervention on behalf of the run-of-the-mill student. As long as they are not infringing upon the rights of others, average students are disregarded by peers, teachers, and the system as a whole as they imperceptibly traverse through hallways, virtually unnoticed. They may be shy, slow-to-warm-up, or late bloomers. They do not overtly wear their dissatisfaction on their sleeve or act out in defiance, so as not to make waves and alert attention to their unmet social needs, although it is possible that hurt and rejection is buried deep within the recesses of their psyches. With a bit of concern, attention, and tenderness, these kids may blossom into prosperous, lively versions of themselves, while left ignored they may psychologically "snap," act out poorly in order to receive much-needed recognition, or enter into full-fledged levels of depression.

Conclusion

Although many schools adopt an assembly-line mentality, in which quick fixes are only applied to explicitly dire cases that would potentially rock the boat, it would behoove school officials to advocate not just for the rock stars and underdogs, but the middle-of-the-road, inconspicuous students as well. Many schools have ample resources, including caring, proficient teachers who would work well with average students, but require a bureaucratic shift in school-wide procedures in order to intervene appropriately.

Understandably, people appreciate superior accomplishments. Indeed, the consummate student, athlete, musician, and artist should be revered for both the painstaking efforts they put forth and output they produce. The question at hand, however, is why would low levels of production render more sympathy and assistance than that of the middlemost mainstream? One could justifiably argue on behalf of the fact that underachievers are needier than their average-performing counterparts, which is a legitimate position. Perhaps though, this stance is more deeply embedded within the framework of our collective unconscious.

For example, the "Prodigal Son" is a parable in which the son who returns from his insubordinate, gluttonous journey is more endeared by his father than that of his consistently reliable brother. While one can understand why the unappreciated son becomes jealous and disgruntled, the bigger message pertains to the love affair we have with the bad-boy-turned-good, as opposed to the good-boy-who-remains-good. Whereas both parties' endpoints are equally redeeming, we believe that the former son represents an evolved, growth-oriented, dramatic, and hopeful pattern, although this assumption is erroneously one-sided. For while encouragement, love, and appreciation exports the underachiever onto average turf, with comparable levels of support the average person/student has a similar ability to transform into greatness.

Terms & Concepts

Academic IQ:

According to Skromme (1988), academic IQ parallels the conventionally-held concept of the Intelligence Quotient, or IQ. People with high academic IQs fare well scholastically, since schools strongly emphasize memorization and the regurgitation of facts and figures.

AVID: A college preparatory program for average students that stands for "Advancement via Individual Determination," which was founded by Mary Catherine Swanson in 1980.

Creative IQ: A concept set forth by Skromme (1988), which asserts that a person's creative agility is a viable representative of their intelligence.

Emotional Intelligence: Per the Bar-On model, emotional intelligence can be described as interpersonal and intrapersonal competencies, as well as the mechanisms that enable people to endure everyday stressors that present themselves on an ongoing basis.

IQ Tests: A battery of tests that examine a person's intelligence quotient, including the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales, the Wechsler Intelligence Scale for Children, and the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB): A nation-wide, educational directive, which mandates that all students meet certain scholastic standards. On a state-to-state basis, each jurisdiction creates academic benchmarks that they deem meets these criteria satisfactorily.

Socialization: The process through which children learn social skills from same-age peers, including but not limited to the following: sharing, competition, winning and losing, leadership, conflict resolution, friendship, loss, peer pressure, romantic involvement, heartbreak, loneliness, involvement with cliques, and shyness.

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Nelson, J. (2007). AVIDly seeking success. Educational Leadership, 64, 72-74. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24666234&site=ehost-live

Northcott, R. (2005). Comparing apples with oranges. Analysis, 65, 12-18. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=15631120&site=ehost-live

Phillips, S. (2008). Are we holding back our students that possess the potential to excel? Education, 129, 50-55. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=34038344&site=ehost-live

Pitre, C. C. & Pitre, P. (2009). Increasing underrepresented high school student's college transitions and achievements. NASSP Bulletin, 93, 96-110. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=44109052&site=ehost-live

Policy implications. (2007). Phi Delta Kappan, 89, 46-48. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=26553437&site=ehost-live

Popescu, R. (2008). No child outside the classroom. Newsweek, 151, 12-12. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=28833388&site=ehost-live

Randinelli, T. (2004). Building the perfect application. Careers & Colleges, 25, 36-39. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14679013&site=ehost-live

Ruenzel, D. (1997). AVID learners. Education Week, 16, 28-33. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9702162638&site=ehost-live

Segal, J. (1998). An optimistic look at the nature-nurture controversy. Brown University Child & Adolescent Behavior Letter, 14, 4-5. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=954012&site=ehost-live

Sesardic, N. (2010). Nature, nurture, and politics. Biology & Philosophy, 25, 433-436. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=50905385&site=ehost-live

Silvestri, L. & Dantonio, M. (1996). The effects of a self development program and relaxation/imagery training on the anxiety levels. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 23, 167-173. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9606274018&site=ehost-live

Skromme, A. B. (1988). Creative students are God's neglected children: Examining the difference between the academic IQ and the creative IQ. Education, 108, 352-381. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Research Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4709868&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J. (1997). Successful intelligence. USA: Penguin Group.

Sternberg, R. J. (1998). How intelligent is intelligent testing? Scientific American Presents, 12-17. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20940673&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J. (2003). Creative thinking in the classroom. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 47, 325-338. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9930301&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J. (2004). The president's report. American Psychologist, 59, 311-313. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=14000931&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J. (2006). The nature of creativity. Creativity Research Journal, 18, 87-98. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=20032012&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J., Reznitskaya, A., & Jarvin, L. (2007). Teaching for wisdom: What matters is not just what students know, but how they use it. London Review of Education, 5, 143-158. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=25915700&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J. (2009). Wisdom, intelligence, and creativity synthesized: A new model for liberal education. Liberal Education, 95, 10-15. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=48666336&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R. J. & Coffin, L. A. (2010). Kaleidoscope. New England Journal of Higher Education, 24 , 12-13. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=47797590&site=ehost-live

Swanson, M. C. (1996). Avid learners. Thrust for Educational Leadership, 26, 24-27. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=9610162151&site=ehost-live

Taylor, B. (2007). A conversation about: No Child Left Behind. Education Digest, 73, 12- 18. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27177332&site=ehost-live

Tulgan, B. (2009). Not everyone gets a trophy: How to manage generation Y. USA: Jossey- Bass.

Waddell, L. (2001). When schools pay kids for test scores. Christian Science Monitor, 93, 1-1. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=4504449&site=ehost-live

Warner, J. (2010). The why-worry generation. New York Times Magazine, 11-11. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=51013964&site=ehost-live

Watt, K. M., Huerta, J., & Lozano, A. (2007). A comparison study of AVID and GEAR UP 10th grade students in two high schools in the Rio Grande Valley of Texas. Journal of Education for Students Placed at Risk, 12, 185-212. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=27212815&site=ehost-live

Wouters, S., Colpin, H., Van Damme, J., De Laet, S., & Verschueren, K. (2013). Early adolescents' academic self-concept formation: Do classmates or friends matter most?. Learning & Individual Differences, 27193-200. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=92730866&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Adler, J. (1997). 100 colleges where average students can excel. USA: Acro.

Hunt, J. W. (2008). A nation at risk and no child left behind: Déjà vu for administrators? Phi Delta Kappan, 89, 580-585. Retrieved July 3, 2010 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=31555723&site=ehost-live

Meier, D. & Wood, G. (2004). Many children left behind: How the No Child Left Behind Act is damaging our children and our schools. USA: Beacon Press.

Stanovich, K. E. (2010). What intelligence tests miss: The psychology of rational thought. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press.