Intercultural Programs

Intercultural programs in the K-12 school system and in post-secondary education institutions are a form of multicultural and diversity education. Intercultural programs are described as the proactive and action-oriented aspect of a phenomenon that teaches people to interact and communicate effectively and appropriately with ethnic, racial, religious, cultural and other differences. Intercultural programs are delivered in a range of forms, including through youth community programs, sustained dialogue programs and various cross-group interactions.

Keywords Accountability; Allport's Intergroup Contact Theory; Bilingualism; Culture; Diversity; Equality; Intercultural Competence; Intercultural Programs; Interculturalism; Intergroup relationships; Marginalized; Multicultural Education; Service Learning

Overview

Multicultural education is an educational approach that integrates factors such as the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and other cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations, into a curriculum that encourages diversity and equality (Johnson, Musial, Hall, Gollnick & Dupuis, 2004). With a similar meaning, diversity education is often used synonymously with multicultural education.

Brown (2007) explains that educators have continuously been encouraged to incorporate multicultural education techniques into their curriculums; however, the manner in which they have responded to the demographic shift (racial, cultural, linguistic) in student learners has not been sufficient. As a result, a growing need for an enhanced focus on intercultural student programs is necessary.

Intercultural programs, a form of multicultural and diversity education, are described as the proactive and action-oriented aspect of a phenomenon that teaches people to interact and communicate effectively and appropriately, with ethnic, racial, religious, cultural and other differences (Fantini, 2000). Intercultural programs, also referred to as intercultural education, teach people to respect, celebrate, recognize and appreciate diversity in all parts of human life. The learner is sensitized to the idea that people are different in many ways and these differences benefit the society at large (National Council for Curriculum and Assessment, n.d.).

Intercultural programs are forms of education that promote equality and human rights, challenge unjust and discriminatory behavior, and support the values that equality has been built on. A blend of the teachings from multicultural education and anti-racist education approaches used worldwide from the 1960s to the 1990s, all make up intercultural education. For example, Ireland has had a long history of ethnic, cultural, religious, and linguistic diversity. The way in which bilingualism in Gaeilge (Gaelic) and English has played a significant role in Irish life as well as in minority religious groups is proof of the impact (NCAA, n.d.).

The terms 'multicultural' and 'intercultural' have been used in recent years to describe the changes that have taken place in Irish society. 'Culture' has been the most commonly used term to describe the changes but both terms illustrate a place or environment in which more than one culture exists in a country. Multiculturalism or multicultural, describes a society where diverse cultures live next to one another but have little or no interaction. On the other hand, the term 'interculturalism' or 'intercultural,' refers to the belief that personal enrichment is enhanced when individuals come in contact with diverse cultures, engage one another and learn from one another (NCAA, n.d.).

Types of Intercultural Education

Intercultural programs are important for a number of reasons. First, service learning programs, for example, teach students to integrate community service experiences with instruction and reflection. These programs often encourage civic responsibility and strengthen an individual's respect for community, including international communities. Service learning programs, including study abroad programs, can be designed to be intercultural in nature and serve as a link to various cultural groups within the United States and abroad (Bennett & Salonen, 2007).

Second, intercultural programs are for all students despite race, gender, age, religion or country of origin. Intercultural education is a vital part of all students' educational experiences, whether they attend a school with a large population of minority students, or whether they attend a school which is predominately white. Despite these differences, because students live in a world that is increasingly becoming more and more diverse, all students need to take part in intercultural programs to prepare themselves for the future (NCAA, n.d).

Last, intercultural programs are important because they offer opportunities for dialogue. Dialogue and story telling are considered key components of intercultural education. In addition to educating students and challenging stereotypes and misconceptions, it is also important to equip them with intercultural competence through open dialogue (NCAA, n.d). Byram (1997) defines intercultural competence as understanding self and others, having the skills to interpret and relate to others, having the skills to discover and/or to interact with others, placing value in others' values, beliefs, and behaviors, and relativizing one's self. Instead of simply telling a student what is right or wrong about a situation, students should be encouraged to use all of these skills to express themselves and discuss their thoughts, fears, and perceptions (NCAA, n.d).

Intergroup Theory

Theory has played an important role in the concept of intercultural programming. In fact, Intergroup theory can explain some of the difficulties experienced in intercultural programming. For example, Allport's Intergroup contact theory explains the process in which intercultural education and interactions take place. The theory posits that a specific type of setting must be created to encourage diverse groups to develop positive interactive relations. This setting should consist of four conditions:

• Cooperation between groups,

• Equal status,

• Common goals, and

• Support from authority figures in the program or institution in which the interaction takes place.

Less bias and a greater possibility for cross-group interactions have resulted when these conditions have been met, including a reduction in prejudices (Allport, 1956; Pettigrew & Troop, 2000).

Limited success with intercultural programs has been seen in schools, particularly secondary schools, due in part to their inability to meet the four Allport conditions. Most schools develop individualistic, competitive environments which decrease the friendliness, trust and candor necessary for members of diverse groups to interact around common goals (Johnson & Johnson, 2000). Status differences among students including in-group/out-groups designations keep students separate and unexposed to diverse others. These separations contribute to the difficulty students have with seeing each other as equals and limits intergroup contact (Hamm, Brown & Heck, 2005). Although schools make intentional efforts to promote intergroup understanding, they often fail due to bureaucratic control and staff's inexperience and discomfort in addressing diversity issues (Nieto, 1994; Yazedjian, 2003).

Successful Intercultural Programs

Intercultural programs structured in specific ways however, have the potential to foster positive cross-group relationships and understandings. Small youth programs that focus on group goals instead of individual accomplishments cause youth to build trust in one another (Larson, Hansen & Moneta, 2006; National Research Council, 2000). The smaller the program is in size, the more effective it tends to be. Youth are able to develop personal relationships with others different from themselves, and are able to begin to see one another as individuals (Pettigrew, 1998; Schofield, 1995).

Location is also key to the success of intercultural programs. Larson (2000) suggest that youth programs located outside of the school, in community settings, encourage youth to interact on an equal basis with little influence from the traditional school environment. High levels of psychological engagement are typically experienced in these settings, which tend to empower youth to be agents of change, including change within oneself.

Youth intercultural programs generally try to encourage the idea of bridging difference. They stress leadership and engagement among members, as well as working together to initiate change within the community (Lahoud, 2003; Lewis-Charp, Yu, Sengouvanh & Lacoe, 2003). A training component that focuses on developing youth's critical thinking skills and analysis of social problems is an added benefit. In addition, analysis of power relationships and various societal processes (interpersonal & community) that cause unfair treatment of different groups are key focuses (Lewis-Charp et al., 2003). This aspect of the training in particular, helps marginalized youth see the link between their personal experiences and the experiences of other groups.

The link between groups is sometimes not identified without challenge. Mitcham-Smith (2007) explains that many students from different ethnic backgrounds and marginalized groups come to school and college with a history of oppression, marginalization and racism that they've dealt with all their lives. These experiences apply to events that may have occurred in society in general, as well as in American education systems. Negative psychosocial stresses can be associated with these experiences (Carr, 2003: Zimmerman, 1995), including mental issues and low self-esteem (Carr, 2003; Duran & Duran, 1995; Hanna et al., 2000; Potts, 2003). Indeed, these factors influence a student's interest and willingness to interact with diverse others, and may impact their success in an intercultural program.

Applications

K-12 Student Experiences in Intercultural Programs

Youth Action is a community youth organizing program located in an ethnically diverse, working-class neighborhood in a large Midwestern city. With a key focus on change, this intercultural program engages youth in various change initiatives within their schools. Youths in the program identify issues that directly affect them. Next, social action campaigns are developed to address the issues. Most of the core members of Youth Action are Latino and African American, and they attend a number of different high schools in that region (Watkins, Larson & Sullivan, 2007).

The youth organized a citywide youth summit and petitioned the school board regarding unequal school funding, overcrowding in schools, and the suspension policy. They also worked toward establishing a career preparation program for their schools, and planned a rally against a new high-stakes exam (Larson & Hansen, 2005).

Their projects, which focused primarily on racism and unequal treatment, proved to be successful in exposing some of the inequalities that existed in the schools. For example, findings from the program's research showed that youth of color were suspended and expelled more than their white counterparts. In addition, findings suggests that fewer youth of color were enrolled in college prep classes, and less funding was provided for schools with high populations of minorities (Watkins, Larson & Sullivan, 2007).

Youth Action experienced positive conditions regarding bridging difference and sought to involve themselves in sociopolitical awareness as well. With the help of adults, periodic workshops and sessions were established to educate youth about the experiences of marginalized groups. Throughout their education on injustices from different groups, students were placed in environments conducive to helping them develop the ability to understand power relationships, systematic processes and their underlying factors (Watkins, Larson & Sullivan, 2007).

To help students recognize connections between what groups experience, gay, lesbian, bisexual, and transgender (GLBT) speakers were invited to give forums about their group and their experiences. In addition, after September 11, members of the Arab community were invited to speak on their post 911 experiences to further establish connections for the youth. An overall analysis of the program suggests that students were provided with tools that helped them enhance their critical thinking skills, as well as the ability to change their understandings and relationships with and behavior toward diverse groups (Watkins, Larson & Sullivan, 2007).

College Student Experiences in Intercultural Programs

Intergroup relationships were observed in an intercultural program for college students at a predominately white institution (PWI). Undergraduate students in three residence halls took part in the program, which focused on cross-group interactions and motivation to reduce one's own prejudices, as well promote inclusion and social justice. Interactions with diverse peers, participation in diversity-related courses, and activities inside and outside residence halls, challenged students' prejudices and likely discriminatory behavior against stigmatized groups (i.e., refusing to participate in jokes that are derogatory to any social group). The program found that interactions influence students to become involved in activities that challenge exclusionary practices and social injustice, like getting together with others to fight discrimination, and promoting inclusion and social justice (Ximena, Williams, & Berger, 2005).

Multicultural programs and services might consider developing Sustained Dialogue programs that are student-driven initiatives in which the focus is placed on changing relationships within a community that suffers from ethnic, racial, religious or other deep-rooted differences, based on identity, power, misconceptions or interaction issues. Within Sustained Dialogue, the responsibility of shaping and reshaping perceptions of climate issues is on the students (Parker, 2006).

Viewpoints

Success of Intercultural Programs

Some research has found that interactions with others different from oneself has various positive outcomes, and suggests that diverse students participate in intercultural programs to obtain these benefits. For example, one study explored the influence of student-student interactions on change of opinion among student leaders (SLs) and non-student leaders (NSLs). This study compared differences between student leaders and non-student leaders, and sought to examine which types of discussions with students different from themselves, best predict change in opinion (Bennett, 2006).

Data from the 2004 College Student Experience Questionnaire (CSEQ) were used in the study (Pace, 1984). The CSEQ asks respondents about their involvement with leadership experiences and the degree to which they have influenced others' opinions and been influenced by others' opinions. Participants also report how often they have become acquainted with or had discussions with other students who are different from themselves based on several characteristics. These characteristics referred to individuals who had different interests, philosophies of life or personal values, political opinions, religious beliefs, race or ethnic backgrounds, family backgrounds or were from different countries.

Findings revealed that discussions with other students who are different in regard to political values and country of origin lead to higher levels of opinion change. Opinion change, then, is influenced by specific types of discussions, and these discussions have an even greater influence on SLs than NSLs (Bennett, 2006).

Terms & Concepts

Accountability: Accountability refers to the idea of holding teachers, administrators, and school board members responsible for the performance of students or for appropriate use of educational funds.

Allport's Intergroup Contact Theory: Allport's Intergroup contact theory posits that a specific type of setting must be created to encourage diverse groups to develop positive interactive relations. This setting should consist of four conditions: cooperation between groups, equal status, common goals, and support from authority figures in the program or institution in which the interaction takes place.

Bilingualism: Bilingualism refers to the ability to speak in two different languages.

Culture: Culture refers to socially driven ways of thinking, believing, feeling and acting within a group of individuals, that are passed on from generation to generation.

Diversity: Diversity is the wide range of differences among people, communities, and families based on cultural and ethnic backgrounds, physical abilities and academic abilities.

Equality: Equality is the state of fairness and justice across individual differences.

Gaeilge: Gaeilge (a.k.a. Gaelic) is an Irish language spoken particularly in Ireland.

Intercultural Competence: Intercultural competence is the act of as understanding self and others, having the skills to interpret and relate to others, having the skills to discover and/or to interact with others, placing value in others' values, beliefs, and behaviors, and relativizing one's self.

Intercultural Programs: Intercultural programs, a form of multicultural and diversity education, are described as the proactive and action-oriented aspect of a phenomenon that teaches people to interact and communicate effectively and appropriately, with ethnic, racial, religious, cultural and other differences.

Interculturalism: Interculturalism, also referred to as 'intercultural,' explains the belief that personal enrichment is enhanced when individuals come in contact with diverse cultures, engage one another and learn from one another.

Intergroup Relations: Intergroup relations are relationships between groups of people who relate to one another based on race, ethnicity, nationality, gender, age, ability, and socio-economic status.

Marginalized: Marginalized refers to the act of pushing someone to a point in which his/her relevance, significance or existence ceases to exist.

Multicultural Education: Multicultural education is an educational approach that integrates four factors into a curriculum, that encourage diversity and equality: the instruction of students from different backgrounds, the study of ethnic and other cultural groups, the development of critical thinking skills, and a focus on human relations.

Multiculturalism: Multiculturalism typically describes a society where diverse cultures live next to one another but have little or no interaction.

Service Learning Programs: Service learning programs teach students to integrate community service experiences with instruction and reflection. These programs often teach civic responsibility and strengthen an individual's respect for community, including international communities.

Bibliography

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Larson, R., & Hansen, D. (2005). The development of strategic thinking: Learning to impact human systems in a youth activism program. Human Development, 48, , 327-349. Retrieved December 20, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=19184433&site=ehost-live

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Suggested Reading

Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (Eds.). (1999). How people learn: Brain, mind, experience, and school. Washington, DC: National Academy Press.

Brown, P. L. & Abell, S. K. (2007). Cultural diversity in the science classroom. Science and Children, 44 , 60-61. Retrieved August 16, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25445454&site=ehost-live

Howard, G. (2007). As diversity grows, so must we, Educational Leadership, 64 , 16- 22. Retrieved August 10, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete: http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24657419&site=ehost-live

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Steinberg, A., Brooks, J., & Remtulla, T. (2003). Youth hate crimes: Identification, prevention, and intervention. American Journal of Psychiatry, 160, 979-989.

Stephan, W. G., & Finlay, K. A. (1999). The role of empathy in improving intergroup relations. Journal on Social Issues, 55, 729-744.

Stephan, W. G., & Stephan, C. W. (1995). Improving intergroup relations. Thousand Oaks: Sage.

Terenzini, P. T., Pascarella, E. T., & Blimling, G. S. (1996). Students' out-of-class experiences and their influence on learning and cognitive development: A literature review. Journal of College Student Development, 40, 610-623.

Umbach, P. D. & Kuh, G. D. (2003, May). Student experiences with diversity at liberal arts colleges: Another claim for distinctiveness. Paper presented at the 43rd Annual Association for Institutional Research Forum, Tampa, FL.