Lesson Planning

This article presents an overview of lesson planning, an organizational tool that provides a strong foundation for novice teachers and an outline for structuring classroom activities for seasoned teachers. Basically, there are five major parts to any lesson: goals or rationale generally connected to state or national standards in the content area of study; statement of central content that will be addressed; list of materials to be used; the sequence of procedures; and the formative and summative assessments. Resources for teachers in lesson planning are also discussed.

Overview

Lesson planning is the teacher's instructional roadmap, a choreographing of a productive instructional plan that could encompass a day, a week, a month, a semester, or yearlong. Through lesson planning, teachers decide what content or skills need to be taught, how they are taught, and how they are assessed. Planning serves as an organizational tool that may provide a strong foundation for new teachers. For seasoned teachers, planning acts as an outline for structuring classroom activities.

Long-range planning, intermediate planning and short-range planning are incorporated into a school year. Long-range planning encompasses the yearlong or semester-long plans, which are generally made up of multiple unit plans. All plans should be up-to-date in content and reflect research-based strategies. As with any lesson plan, long-term plans should reflect what a teacher knows about their students and should be free from bias.

Intermediate plans or unit plans cover a larger topic and outline a series of individual lessons that are carried out in relation to that topic. Unit plans are more detailed and can be made up of many lessons. There are many types of unit plans that are used in the classroom, including resource units, those plans that are packaged units prepared by the state education department, special interest groups, government agencies, or book publishers. Teaching units are those units that are prepared for a specific student body. Teachers are flexible in developing and modifying teaching units, and allow for "teachable moments," those spontaneous teaching moments when a classroom event happens and immediate follow-up and discussion is necessary. Subject matter units are linear in nature, as students must master one piece of the content before moving on to the next. Experience units include the evolution of one lesson to the next, as teachers decide the next lesson based on the experience of what happens in a lesson in progress. Integrated units are often used in elementary schools and combine study across the curriculum.

Short-range lesson plans are those plans that are prepared for one or more class periods and focus on specific content or skills. Lessons can be planned using curriculum guides, or frameworks, that prescribe to teachers what the state or school district wants students to know at different times in their educational lives. Resource units can be helpful in developing lesson plans; textbooks and non-print material also are useful sources in planning lessons. Many teachers work in teams to develop plans, sharing objectives, materials and instructional ideas.

There are many benefits to lesson planning. Planning provides a sequence to the classroom activities and directs classroom experiences in a positive way. Pupils are motivated by proper planning, and they learn best from planning practices that include the formulation of clear plans and examples that move from the simple to the complex. Thorough lesson plans include provisions for individual student differences.

Historically, an earliest form of lesson planning was evident in the 1820s as monitors served as instructors in small classrooms across the United States. Teachers taught their lesson plans to bright students who then taught these lessons to their peers. The lessons were structured and included rote memory of reading, writing and arithmetic. Lesson planning further evolved when the monitorial system shifted to a recitation model in the latter part of the nineteenth century. To enhance the recitation model, teachers focused on their lesson planning and organization of the classroom. Teachers focused on personal contact between the teacher and the student, with a greater emphasis on teacher training. The lesson plan became structured, becoming one of the most important activities in teacher practice.

At the beginning of the twentieth century, lesson planning further evolved to include the study of literature, mathematics, biology, and psychology. Lesson planning took on a more prominent role in directing teacher practice, as mass education developed during the industrial revolution. There have also been other societal factors that have influenced lesson planning in American classrooms. International and national events have brought curriculum changes involving lesson planning. With the Soviet launching of Sputnik, the first satellite into space, in 1957, curricula changed as government officials noted that American students were lagging behind others in science and mathematics. As a result, science instruction shifted from mere rote memory of facts to a problem-solving model. Rapid growth in the teaching of technology has also affected lesson planning.

Political and economic changes in social science also impacted lesson planning, as teachers rushed to include knowledge about the changing venues in Eastern Europe, Asia, and Africa. Scores on standardized tests began to decline as students grasped for new knowledge. As a result, teacher education standardized proficiency tests appeared in states across America. Teachers also began focusing on individual learners and their instructional needs in daily lesson planning to accommodate the No Child Left Behind Act (2001). In the late 1990's, Wiggins and McTighe developed the "Backwards Design" model. Backwards Design is a standards-based format for developing lesson plans and units that are driven by outcomes rather than activities.

Lesson plans can be influenced by many elements. Different teachers may focus on select elements that they deem important in planning lessons for their students. For instance, elementary school teachers may focus on the context of teaching, choosing activities that will interest and involve their students. Secondary education teachers may focus on content, presenting knowledge in interesting ways. Special education teachers may focus on their students' individual goals written in an Individual Educational Plan (IEP). Plans can also be affected by a teacher's educational beliefs or philosophy or the classroom's diversity.

There are basically two typical models of planning. In one model, a teacher decides what knowledge is important to teach, based on standards; selects the activities or strategies by which students will learn; and designs the assessments that will determine if students are learning. In the second model, a teacher decides what knowledge is important to teach, based on standards; designs the assessments; and selects the strategies.

Lesson planning can include any one of three common teaching approaches: direct instruction, informal presentation (often called mini-lessons), and structured discovery. These approaches are guides that teach students in specific ways in order to attain the specific learning objectives developed for the lesson. Teachers select among these approaches, based on their objectives, choosing the model that they determine is the best way to present material to students.

Duplass suggests that lessons can be planned effectively by asking certain questions that will aid teachers in developing challenging lessons:

1. What goals and standards are important?
2. What background knowledge do students have?
3. How long will it take to teach the lesson and what materials are needed?
4. What big ideas are important?
5. What processes will enhance learning of basic skills of the lesson?
6. How is the lesson relevant to students' lives?
7. What tasks will the students complete?
8. How will the lesson be differentiated to meet the needs of all the students?
9. How will the students change in their thinking because of this lesson plan?

Lesson planning continues even after the lesson is completed. Teachers reflect upon their lesson and what worked best. Duplass states that the next time most lessons are taught, 20 percent of the lesson will have been redeveloped based on changes from reflection. Student achievement and enthusiasm indicates what parts of the lesson will remain in the next implementation.

Lesson planning takes many forms. Basically, there are five major parts to any lesson. These include:

• Goals or rationale, generally connected to state and/or national standards in the content area of study

• Statement of central content that will be addressed

• List of materials to be used

• The sequence of procedures; and,

• The formative and summative assessments

Lesson planning can also be sequenced to include other aspects of information to provide thorough instructional guidelines for teachers: goals; objectives; state frameworks or professional standards; connections across the curriculum; materials and time needed for each section of the lesson; outline of classroom activities and choice of strategies; source for motivating students; key questions; teaching of terms and vocabulary; adaptations for diverse learners; organization of the classroom; both formative and summative assessment; and reflection. Other models include defining the objectives in terms of the cognitive domain, the affective domain and the psychomotor domain.

There are many resources for teachers in the planning of lessons. Colleagues share ideas about what worked well. The internet offers many resource materials for developing lessons. The teacher's edition of a textbook offers suggestions for lesson planning and related ancillary materials offered with textbooks all offer suggestions for developing strong lessons. Teachers can also look to their national and state standards for aid in developing effective lessons. The Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC) exhibits the process of lesson planning in their core standard Principle #7: "The teacher plans instruction based on knowledge of subject matter, students, the community and curriculum goals."

Applications

Assessment

An important element of lesson planning is providing for assessment of the objectives that are outlined as important content and skills that students must learn. There are two types of assessment: formative and summative. Formative assessment is the continual assessment of students during the course of the lesson. These informal assessments are given throughout the lesson so that teachers can modify activities and check for understanding. Here, teachers are interested in determining whether students are grasping the lesson while the actual lesson is taking place. Formative assessment includes observations of performance tasks, skills checklists, portfolio assessment, conferencing, peer reviews, writing to learn activities such as journaling, and self-assessment. Summative assessment is the culminating evaluation of a student. This form of assessment is that final paper, project or activity that shows if students have learned the material presented.

Differentiating Lessons

Differentiating means providing appropriately challenging learning experiences for all the students. Teachers should plan lessons with all students in mind. There are basically three groups of learners that require differentiating of lessons: those of diverse cultural or linguistic backgrounds; those who are at-risk, having problems that could interfere with successful learning; and students with disabilities. However, teachers also can differentiate lessons based on differences in readiness and interest.

Developing Objectives

Objectives are descriptions of learning outcomes. Outcomes refer to both the anticipated results of the lesson as well as the general kinds of student outcomes desired in the mode of lesson planning. These objectives clarify exactly what teachers want their students to learn, providing focus and direction to any lesson. Through use of well-developed objectives, teachers are signaling what is important in the lesson. Bloom's  'Taxonomy of Educational Objectives' breaks down objectives into three domains: the cognitive, the affective, and the psychomotor.

The cognitive domain of objectives focuses on intellectual outcomes, specifically understanding of knowledge and developing thinking. Generally, this domain encourages objectives that include elements of: knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis, synthesis, and evaluation. The affective domain emphasizes feelings and emotions and encompasses students' interests, attitudes, appreciation, and methods of adjusting. The psychomotor domain emphasizes motor skills.

Another model by Gagne, Briggs and Wager outlines different forms of objectives and includes: verbal information, intellectual skills, cognitive strategies, problem solving, motor skills, and attitudes objectives.

Motivating Students

Lesson plans must include strategies for motivating students. While teachers do not have to do as much to motivate students who already possess intrinsic motivation (an inner need for interest in learning), teachers do need to provide incentives or reinforcers to those students who need to be extrinsically motivated. Orenstein, Lesley, and Mindes suggest several ways to motivate all students. They suggest that teachers must:

• Encourage student interest at the beginning of a lesson

• Maintain student curiosity and involvement throughout a lesson

• Provide interesting and varied methods to activities

• Provide active learning experiences

• Permit student autonomy in organizing their time and effort, and,

• Provide choice and alternatives in meeting lesson requirements

Sequence of Procedures / Activities

Lesson plans include activity planning, or the written description of exactly what the teacher will do or say to help students learn content or develop a skill or strategy. There are certain elements that are incorporated into any activity or procedure sequence. Teachers pre-plan their activities, outlining those that will bring about the outcomes that have previously been outlined in a lesson plan. Part of the pre-planning includes determining how to motivate students.

The next part of the activity sequence is the activity beginning, where students are prepared for the start of the lesson and expectations are set up. The activity middle provides a specific description of what the teacher and students will do. The activity closing ties up all the elements discussed in the lesson, reviews major ideas, and discusses future lessons or activities.

Orenstein & Hunkins outline criteria for selecting and organizing appropriate content and activities in lesson plans. Content should be valid or truthful and carry some significance by meeting state and/or national standards. There must be a balance to the content and activities, as students learn general and specific depth to a lesson. The content and activities must possess learnability; in other words, the content and activities must be in the capacity of students to learn. The lesson must also be feasible to complete during a certain time frame and materials and other resources must be readily available.

Cruickshank, Bainer-Jenkins, and Metcalf list over thirty instructional activities that promote learning, such as academic games and competition, brainstorming, case studies, classroom centers of interest, debates, demonstrations, direct instruction, discovery learning, discussions, drill and practice, field observation, field trips, independent study, individualized instruction, learning modules, mastery learning, oral reports, presentations and lectures, problem solving, programmed and computer-assisted instruction, role playing, simulations, and tutoring.

Further Insights

Backwards Design

Backwards Design is a standards-based format for developing lesson plans and units that are driven by outcomes rather than activities. It is an inquiry-based process to help students facilitate standards-based inquiry in their classrooms more effectively. Teachers begin their lesson planning by identifying specific learning objectives that are connected to state and/or national standards. They create detailed alignments of standards to assessments and then plan learning experiences and instruction. Instead of moving linearly through a series of activities, teachers make a conscious effort to emphasize particular skills and knowledge needed to meet specific learning objectives.

There is a detailed correlation of academic standards to each activity, with an alignment of an assessment that illustrates and assesses that activity. Backwards Design stresses this relationship between objectives and assessments. Assessments are critical for monitoring student learning.

Children Develop at Own Pace (DAP)

DAP is a model of lesson planning for younger children. Developed by Sue Bredekamp, this model advocates the planning of instruction by evaluating knowledge about younger children to develop daily plans. This model promotes methods and approaches that are good practice for younger children, as teachers analyze milestones to develop lessons: physical, intellectual, and socio-emotional milestones. Steps to planning lessons within DAP include checking the calendar to see what impacts the classroom on a daily basis; reviewing program goals and frameworks; reviewing the developmental milestones of the age group; choosing sequenced skilled activities that are developmentally appropriate; developing a theme for instruction; checking anecdotal notes and IEPs for special needs students; and, gathering the materials needed for the activities.

Direct Instruction

Direct instruction is a teaching model or approach for implementing standards-based instruction. In this model, the teacher demonstrates the lesson, the teacher works together with the students to practice the lesson, and then the students practice the skills by themselves. The students are assessed to determine if they have mastered the content or skill. The teacher is involved in explicit teaching, with the teacher directing the lesson. Information is presented in small steps, with mastery of that step before students can move on to the next part of the lesson. Content that is appropriate for this approach to teaching includes: basic knowledge, basic skills, strategies, concepts, class rules, procedures, and social skills. This convergence of important factors includes the right kind of comprehensible input, a supportive context, large amounts of time and conducive psychological characteristics (e.g., patience, tolerance of ambiguity, and integrative motivation).

Informal Presentations, or Mini-Lessons

Mini-lessons are those short 15 to 20 minute focused presentations, whereby teachers deliver information in a clear and concise way to small or large groups. Teachers need to have strong knowledge of the topic and often present the material through use of graphic organizers. Mini-lessons are generally focused on topics that students need to know in order to complete the activity required in the lesson plan.

Structure Discovery Model

In this model or approach to teaching, students discover content or skills rather than having the teacher present it to them. The teacher pre-determines lesson objectives in their lesson plans and students satisfy the objectives by working to learn the academic content. This approach to teaching promotes higher-level thinking skills and enhances retention.

Terms & Concepts

Advanced Organizers: Advanced organizers are graphic organizers or statements that are presented to students so that they have a better understanding of a concept or new material.

Extrinsic Motivation: Students who do not possess the ability to motivate themselves into action must be extrinsically motivated through use of tangile rewards or intangible rewards such as praise.

Formative Assessment: Formative assessment is a form of assessment that provides for immediate evidence of student learning in a particular course or at a particular point in a program. Formative assessment improves the quality of student learning and should not be evaluative or involve grading students. By informally evaluating students during a lesson, the teacher can gain an understanding of what the students know or can do, based on instruction to that point in the lesson.

Individual Educational Plan (IEP): An Individual Educational Plan (IEP) is a written plan for the special education of a child with a disability. The IEP describes what the student can already do and what the student needs to learn in order to reach his or her goals. A team of professionals writes the IEP.

Intrinsic Motivation: Intrinsic motivation is apparent when students engage in an activity for its own sake, without an external incentive.

Objective: An objective is a statement of a learning outcome.

No Child Left Behind Act: The No Child Left Behind Act (2001) was passed by the federal government in 2002 to improve failing schools, and to assure all students in the US receive the education needed to succeed. In 2012, the administration of President Barack Obama distributed waivers to the act, which exempted states from certain aspects of the educational standards.

Summative Assessment: Summative assessment is a form of assessment used to check the level of learning at the end of the program. This form of assessment gives the teacher a clear understanding of what the students know or can do at the end of a lesson, unit, or semester.

Teachable Moments: Those spontaneous teaching times when a classroom event happens and immediate follow-up and discussion is necessary.

Bibliography

Angelo, T. A., & Cross, K. P. (1993). Classroom assessment techniques: A handbook for college teachers (2nd ed.). Retrieved May 1, 2007 from University of Hawaii - Honolulu.

Bloom, B. (Ed.) (1956). Taxonomy of educational objectives. London: Longman.

Cooper, J. (Ed.) (2006). Classroom teaching skills (8th ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Cruickshank, D., Bainer-Jenkins, D., & Metcalf, K. (2003). The act of teaching, (3rd ed.). Boston: McGraw Hill. Duplass, J. (2006). Middle and high school teaching: Methods, standards and best practices. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Drexel University. How to write a lesson plan as a student teacher. drexel.edu/soe/resources/student-teaching/advice/how-to-write-a-lesson-plan/

Gagne, R., Briggs, L. & Wager, W. (1992). Principles of Instructional Design (4th ed.). Fort Worth, TX: HBJ College Publishers.

Hendrickson, S. (2006, Jan.). Backward approach to inquiry. Science Scope, 29, 30 - 33. Retrieved May 1, 2007 from EBSCO Education Research Complete. ‗HL0:AN:19677392::‗http://search.ebscohostcom/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19677392&site=ehost-live‗hl‗

INTASC's Model Standards for Beginning Teacher Licensing, Assessment and Development: A Resource for State Dialogue (1992). Retrieved May 1, 2007 From CCSSO Home Page.

Klein, A. (2013). As NCLB waivers take hold, revision of law remains up in air. Education Week, 32, 25. Retrieved December 14, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete.

Linne, A. (2001 March/April). The lesson as a pedagogic text: A case study of lesson designs. Journal of Curriculum Studies, 33, 129-156. Retrieved May

1, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. ‗HL0:AN:4140487::‗http://search.ebscohostcom/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4140487&site=ehost-live‗hl‗

Morrow, C. (2013). Caught or taught: Indirect and direct instruction. Perspectives (TESOL Arabia), 20, 6-12. Retrieved December 12, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete.

No Child Left Behind (NCLB). Act of 2001. Section 1001 Public Law print of PL 107- 110.

Orenstein, A., & Hunkins, F. (1993). Curriculum: Foundations, principles and issues (2nd ed.). Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Orenstein, A., Lesley, T., & Mindes, G. (2005). Secondary and middle school methods. Boston: Pearson.

Petersen, E. (1996). Early childhood planning: Methods and materials. Boston: Allyn and Bacon.

Price, K., & Nelson, K. (1999). Daily planning for today's classroom: A guide for writing lesson and activity plans. Boston: Wadsworth.

Tomlinson, C. (2001). How to differentiate in mixed abilities classrooms (2nd ed.). Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Uhrmacher, P., Conrad, B. M., & Moroye, C. M. (2013). Finding the balance between process and product through perceptual lesson planning. Retrieved December 14, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. Teachers College Record, 115, 1-27.

Wiggins, G., & McTighe, J. (1998). Understanding by design. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Suggested Reading

Arends, R. (1997). Classroom instruction and management. New York: McGraw Hill.

Dick, W., & Carey, L. (1978). The systematic design of instruction. Glenview, IL: Scott, Foresman & Co.

Dimino, J. (2007 March/April). Bridging the gap between research and practice. Journal of Learning Disabilities, 40, 183-189.Retrieved May 1, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. ‗HL0:AN:24186430::‗http://search.ebscohostcom/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24186430&site=ehost-live‗hl‗

Frey, N., Douglas, F., & Moore, K. (2005). Designing responsive curriculum: Planning lessons that work. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield.

Gronlund, N. (2000). How to write and use instructional objectives, (6th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Merrill.

Howell, K., Fox, S., & Morehead, M. (1993). Curriculum-based evaluation: Teaching and decision making, (2nd ed.). Pacific Grove, CA: Brooks and Cole.

Shumway, S., & Berrett, J. (2004 November). Standards-based curriculum development For pre-service and in-service: A "partnering" approach using modified Backwards Design. Technology Teacher, 64, 26 - 29. Retrieved May 1, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. ‗HL0:AN:15247564::‗http://search.ebscohostcom/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=15247564&site=ehost-live‗hl‗