Lifelong Learning

This article focuses on adult lifelong learning and how it applies in the workforce, after retirement and for older adults, and for personal enrichment purposes. Lifelong learning is a broad term which covers anything that deals with education from early childhood through adulthood and can refer to permanent learning, recurring learning, continuing education and adult education. Also, as increased global competition and economic restructuring have become more prevalent, the need for training and retraining for the workforce has grown. Many government and work-related programs have contributed to the education of adults for economic success.

Keywords Adult Education; Baby Boomer; Community Colleges; Community Education; Continuing Education; Continuing Education Units (CEUs); Contracted Instruction; Enrichment; Personal Development; Welfare-to-Work; Worker-Trainee Program; Workforce Development

Overview

Lifelong learning can cover anything that deals with education from early childhood through adulthood and can refer to permanent learning, recurring learning, continuing education and adult education. Longworth and Davies (1996) describe lifelong learning as, "the development of human potential through a continuously supportive process which stimulates and empowers individuals to acquire all the knowledge, values, skills, and understanding they will require throughout their lifetimes and to apply them with confidence, creativity and enjoyment in all roles, circumstances, and environments" (Longworth & Davies, p. 22). For the purposes of this article, lifelong learning will focus on adult lifelong learning. As with the variety of concepts that fall into the category of lifelong learning, there are many ways that lifelong learning can be accomplished. Lifelong learning can occur practically anywhere and in any way, including educational institutions, libraries, museums, civic clubs, zoos, the workplace, etc.

In 1999, data shows that an estimated 90 million adults in the United States (approximately 46 percent of the population) had enrolled in a course in the past twelve months, a number that was higher than the 32 percent of the adult population in 1991. These figures only take into account formal courses led by an instructor and include adult basic education courses, English as a second language classes, postsecondary credit programs, work-related courses, and personal development courses and do not include any informal learning opportunities such as book clubs and writing circles.

Implementation of Lifelong Learning

As increased global competition and economic restructuring have become more prevalent in the United States, the need for training and retraining for the workforce has grown. Employment-related training, or workforce development, also affects the unemployed with such programs as Welfare-to-Work, which gained popularity during President Bill Clinton's administration even though it actually was a component of the Worker-Trainee Program, a program that originated in 1968 under President Lyndon Johnson (Office of Personnel Management, 2001). Employment-related programs can be apprenticeship programs, work-related courses, and degree/certificate programs. Many community colleges and four-year colleges and universities that offer technical programs partner with businesses and industries in their service areas to place their students in internship programs with those entities so that students can acquire some real-life experience working in their chosen field, which better prepares them for the world of work and the possibility of full-time employment from their internship employers.

Work-related courses are broad in content, providers, and delivery settings and systems. Courses may be freestanding, a one-day seminar, a single course over a few days, or may contain courses that interrelate, leading to the completion or certificate of professional qualification. In some instances, depending upon the size of the business and obligation to workforce development, businesses may found their own “universities” or “colleges” that can provide their employees with advanced training opportunities (Jones, 1997). Corporations such as McDonald's, Motorola, and Disney have such training programs in place. McDonald's Hamburger University was established in 1961 and has trained more than 80,000 managers and owner/operators since its inception (McDonald's Corporation, 2006), and Motorola claims to have saved over $17 billion in the more than 18 years that their university has been up and running (Motorola, Inc., 2007). Disney's training program, the Disney Institute, now offers off-site programs and trainings for outside organizations, and participants can even receive Continuing Education Units (Disney, 2007).

While there are some major corporations who have developed their own internal workforce training programs, many other businesses prefer to use external providers, such as colleges, universities, and training organizations or certificate programs, to address their training needs. This is where community colleges, with their inherent flexibility and mission, can really shine by providing on-site or off-site training on demand that meets each employer's unique training needs. They can also offer the training to meet each shift's needs by offering opportunities in the morning, afternoon, and evening and on weekends when necessary.

Higher Education Programs

Colleges and universities are in the unique position of seeing a lot of adults enroll who already have a degree but would like to change careers. They also see older adults who never went to college after high school but have found that if they want to attain a higher-paying job and some degree of economic security they need training beyond high school. To keep up with an ever-changing job market and to meet the needs of these non-traditional students, some colleges and universities have implemented greater flexibility in the admissions process and the times at which classes are offered. For example, in a town where there is very little, if any, shift work industry, these institutions consider the fact that the majority of adults are already working in a job and cannot get to class until five o'clock. Distance education is another way they meet society's needs since it offers flexible meeting times and the ability to complete a program from the comfort of one's own home, provided internet access is available. Thus, the parent who cannot afford a babysitter or the adult who does not have access to transportation can still take advantage of educational opportunities.

Higher education institutions also work with local businesses, industries, and school districts to assure their employees receive the education they need. For example, many colleges work with a school district to provide required teacher certification classes in the summertime that address the district's particular needs. These certification classes can be offered in a variety of ways to meet instructors' schedules with an intensive two- or three-day course or courses that span a week and meet a few hours a day or even courses that meet once a week for an hour or two over the summer. Higher education institutions can offer short-term or ongoing training to companies depending on their needs. For example, a college may be called upon to come to a business for a few hours and train employees on an upgraded operating system or program. Long-term training can occur if a company purchases a new program or operating system with which the employees have no familiarity, or if the company is instituting new processes that must be learned from the very beginning.

Personal Development Courses

Personal development courses are also known as personal enrichment courses, and these courses can cover every conceivable area of interest from health and fitness, hobbies, sports, political engagement, travel and culture, and religious studies. Personal development courses can also cover every level of interest from novice to expert. While work-related and educational programs tend to be more for adults who need the learning to either succeed in their current position, change careers, or attain employment, personal development courses are taken by those adults who simply have a love of learning, want to feed their interest in a particular subject, or who are curious about something and want to learn more. Personal development courses can be held basically anywhere and can be offered free of charge or for a fee. They can be formal and highly structured with a syllabus, or they can be informal in nature and conform to the interest level of participants.

Further Insights

A 2002 study reported that 37 percent of the 'baby boomer' generation indicated that continuing their education was an important part of their retirement plans (Hart, 2002, as cited in Wilson, Harlow-Rosentraub, Manning, Simson & Steel, 2006). However, even before retirement, education is considered an important component of this generation's lives as these generally highly educated adults are returning to colleges and universities to attain formal education for an alternative career. According to a 2005 study, 56 percent of baby boomers currently in the workforce indicated that they would like to change careers (Merrill Lynch, 2005, as cited in Wilson et al., 2006). The interest in changing careers can be motivated by personal preference, the potential for making a higher income, and a desire to perform more meaningful and rewarding work. Regardless of the reason, the baby boomer generation is engaging in more lifelong learning than previous generations, and it is important that colleges and universities and communities are prepared to accommodate their learning needs.

Community colleges are in a unique position to help because promoting lifelong learning is part of many community colleges' mission and /or vision. Many community colleges have community and continuing education departments' priority is providing relevant, timely educational offerings to meet the community's need as well as contracted specialized instruction available for local companies. Although both community and continuing education fall under the auspices of adult lifelong learning, continuing education may have college credit or Continuing Education Units attached to it, while community education courses ordinarily do not. Continuing education courses can be for the general public or for business and industry. An example of a continuing education course for education might be when a local school has received a grant to supply computers to all its teachers, who must have instruction on the basics of computers and the specific programs they will be required to use. The school tells the college about its needs, and the college finds one or two instructors who are experienced with the programs and willing to teach the classes. Since flexibility is so important, the school arranges with the college to hold classes at night to accommodate the teachers' schedules. The participants are given an outline of the class and what concepts will be covered during class times so that those who are already adept and comfortable using computers will not have to attend the classes that cover computer basics. This is an example of contracted instruction at its best—covering the necessary material at a time and day that works best for all participants.

Continuing Education for General Public

Continuing education for the general public can be just as constructive, offering courses at times and days that are convenient for the majority. This can mean experimenting with class times and offering courses that build on each other, such as beginning keyboarding, introduction to computers, introduction to computer operating systems, introduction to word processing, intermediate word processing, and advanced word processing. Each course builds on the concepts learned in previous courses; but by breaking the courses up into smaller components, potential students can step in at the level they need and not spend their time in classes they have already mastered. Continuing education is also a way for potential college students to get acclimated to a college campus and how college classes are run. By having a positive experience in their first class on campus and with encouragement from their instructor, students may soon believe in their ability to succeed and explore further educational opportunities.

Community education classes are usually an enjoyable experience for participants because they are taking classes that interest them without the pressure of formal assessment. Any assessment that does occur is informal in nature and done when necessary to ensure that the concepts presented are understood or mastered. Community education courses can cover every subject imaginable. If the college has a culinary arts department it can offer such classes as bread baking, cake decorating, wedding cakes, holiday cookies, summer salads, soups, slow cooker cooking, etc. If there is an automotive department, classes can be offered on how to change oil, spark plugs, general maintenance, or how to shop for a new or used car. Psychology personnel can offer to teach relaxation classes, meditation, dealing with stress, or any other kind of self-help class. The history department can offer a few specialized classes dealing with current events, area history, or information leading up to some kind of major historical anniversary. Community education arts and crafts classes are generally very popular; attendees are able to choose from floral arranging, knitting, crocheting, scrapbooking, photography, quilting, sewing, needlework or interior decorating. Those interested in travel and foreign languages can take a foreign language class or participate in lecture series presented by those who have traveled to the countries. Computer classes can cover the standards as well as the latest upgrades of popular software. There may also be health and wellness classes, gardening classes, home improvement classes, writing classes, poetry classes, dog obedience classes.

College – Sponsored Community & Continuing Education

College-sponsored community and continuing education classes may or may not have a fee associated with them. Contracted instruction courses cost the business or industry, but the company generally does not charge the employees taking the class. The same premise may hold true for some specialized community education classes, because a community agency may receive funds to offer classes and thus contract with the college to instruct the classes. For example, a local housing authority that would like to bring computer training to its residents contracts with the local college to have an instructor come to the housing development in the evening and teach the classes. The classes are free for the residents of the housing development.

If colleges are funded by local taxpayer dollars, it is usually in the college's best interest in terms of public relations and continued funding to periodically offer classes free of charge for the community. This can be accomplished by offering free community education classes one or two nights a year that showcase a little of what the college has to offer. This not only helps participants and encourages lifelong learning, it is good for the college because it can bring people on campus who have never been there before. Interest in a subject is encouraged, which may then get participants to enroll in future course offerings. Such good will is good public relations since it is a way of thanking the community for their support of the college.

Meeting Lifelong Learning Needs of Citizens

Communities can also help meet their citizens' lifelong learning needs in many different ways, since the public's demand for learning can be guided by their personal needs and interests. Senior citizen centers often work with the local college to offer field trips for seniors and their grandchildren, allowing participants to gain in-depth knowledge on subjects without being in a traditional classroom setting -- which can be intimidating -- and also allowing grandparents to help instill in their grandchildren a love for lifelong learning (Tjaden, 1998). Local libraries can also be a great source of lifelong learning. Adults can join book clubs, consult with librarians about suggested readings and subjects, and take advantage of educational programming. Libraries offer many types of fun, educational programming for adults both within and beyond the library. Some on-site programs provide computer training on how to use the library's electronic catalog and conducting internet research, reading programs, and book discussions. Some of the field trips can be day excursions to museums, historical homes, plays, and operas with information provided ahead of time and while en route to enrich the learning experience. Local museums may offer discussions on their collections or special traveling exhibits; and planetariums can offer programs about astronomy, celestial navigation, and hold discussions about the planets.

Many community associations also embrace lifelong learning. Active adult communities are a rapidly growing type of housing development for adults age 55 and older. As part of the association fee a variety of learning opportunities are offered. Among these are computer classes, sports, cards, arts and crafts and driver safety. Among the clubs are fine arts club, business club, book club, current events club, financial club, pet club, opera club, travel club, and political clubs. Most activities are offered free of charge as part of what the association fee covers, although some may have a nominal fee to cover the cost of supplies.

Learning should not cease once a degree is completed or a job is attained. Adults continue to learn through work and experience by necessity and for their own personal enrichment. Lifelong learning is an ongoing process that will continue to grow as the population lives longer and recognizes the importance of staying active in both mind and body.

Terms & Concepts

Baby Boomer: Anyone born between 1946 and 1964 in nations that saw unusual, drastic spikes in birth rates following the Second World War.

Community College: A public institution of higher education that provides students with levels of instruction that have been created and modified according to the needs of the community. These colleges typically offer transfer curriculums (credits that apply toward a bachelor's degree at another university or the college itself), career-technical programs (one- and two-year courses of academia designed to prepare students for immediate career opportunities), and community and continuing education opportunities.

Community Education: Any classes, usually non-credit, offered through colleges or community agencies to the public.

Continuing Education: Courses, programs, or organized learning experiences that are often completed post-degree, when students wish to advance personal or professional academic goals.

Continuing Education Units (CEUs): A nationally recognized method of calculating the actual time that is spent in a learning environment for professional and training academics. The record quantifies the educational accomplishments attained. For every ten hours of instruction or training, one Continuing Education Unit is awarded.

Contracted Instruction: Contracted instruction is when a business or organization enters into an agreement with an educational institution to provide training to its employees.

Welfare-to-Work: Welfare-to-Work was a federal government program whose concept was to get people off their reliance on public support and encourage them to get back into the workforce by providing assistance and funding for transportation, training, childcare, and substance abuse treatment. The program expired September 30, 2004.

Worker-Trainee Program: Originally known as the Worker-Trainee Opportunity Program, a special hiring authority established in 1968 and overseen by the Department of Labor where federal agencies were asked to participate by providing employment and structured training opportunities to help combat unemployment.

Bibliography

Blaschke, L. (2012). Heutagogy and lifelong learning: A review of heutagogical practice and self-determined learning. International Review of Research in Open & Distance Learning, 13, 56-71. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=71275487&site=ehost-live

Casey, C. (2013). Learning organizations, learning workers: Toward enhanced employment relations. International Journal of Continuing Education & Lifelong Learning, 5, 121-137. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88839191&site=ehost-live

Disney. (2007). Disney Institute: Continuing education. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.disneyinstitute.com/education.cfm

Jones, R. (1997). The new workplace and lifelong learning. Adult Learning, 8 , 18. Retrieved June 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9705220768&site=ehost-live

Longworth, N., & Davies, W. K. (1996). Lifelong Learning: New Vision, New Implications, New Roles for People, Organizations, Nations and Communities in the 21st Century. London: Kogan Page. McDonald's Corporation. (2006). Hamburger University. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.mcdonalds.com/corp/career/hamburger_university.html

Motorola, Inc. (2007). About Motorola University. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.motorola.com/content.jsp?globalObjectId=3071-5801

Stella, G. (2012). The development and validation of a new scale for monitoring attitudes towards lifelong learning and human resources development. International Journal of Learning, 18, 127-148. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83812786&site=ehost-live

Tjaden, J. (1998). Using faculty in nontraditional ways: The lifelong learning initiative at Maple Woods Community College. Ageing International, 24 (2/3), 88. Retrieved June 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9611424&site=ehost-live

United States Office of Personnel Management. (2001). Welfare-to-Work. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.opm.gov/wtw/index.htm#intro

Wilson, L., Harlow-Rosentraub, K., Manning, T., Simson, S. & Steele, J. (2006). Civic engagement and lifelong learning. Generations, 30 , 90-94. Retrieved June 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=25027672&site=ehost-live

Woodfield, S., May, S., & van der Sluis, H. (2013). Lifelong Learning Network (LLN) progression agreements. Widening Participation & Lifelong Learning, 15, 6-20. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89798790&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Brookfield, S. (1991). Understanding and facilitating adult learning: A comprehensive analysis of principles and effective practices. Hoboken, NY: Jossey-Bass.

Jarvis, P. (2003). Adult education and lifelong learning: Theory and practice. London: RoutledgeFalmer.

Kungu, K., Machtmes, K., Prieto, L., & Jabor, K. (2011). Assessing readiness for lifelong learning: Volunteers to a 4-H youth development program. International Journal of Learning, 18, 23-43. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=73352781&site=ehost-live

Longworth, N. (1999). Making lifelong learning. London: Routledge.

Maehl, W. (1999). Lifelong learning at its best: Innovative practices in adult credit programs. Hoboken, NY: Jossey-Bass.

Solomonides, I. (2012). A critique of the nexus between student engagement and lifelong learning. International Journal of Continuing Education & Lifelong Learning, 5, 65-82. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=84039632&site=ehost-live

Sutherland, P. & Crowther, J. (2006). Lifelong learning: Concepts and contexts. London: Routledge.

Essay by Sandra Myers, M.Ed.

Sandra Myers has a master’s degree in Adult Education from Marshall University and is the former Director of Academic and Institutional Support at Miles Community College in Miles City, Montana, where she oversaw the College’s community service, developmental education, and academic support programs. She has taught business, mathematics, and computer courses; and her other areas of interest include adult education and community education.