Master Teachers

The term "master teacher" is used generically to describe an accomplished teacher who excels in the classroom by increasing student achievement. An educator may also become a certified "Master Teacher" by completing a rigorous program from the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Educational researchers have tried to identify qualities that are common to master teachers. Many programs have sprung up locally, within states, and nationally in the last twenty years to encourage improved teaching and have resulted in career ladder opportunities for teachers who wish to keep their focus on the classroom.

Keywords A Nation at Risk; Certification; Differentiation; Highly Qualified Teachers; Lead Teacher; Master Teacher; National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS); No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB); Scaffolding

Overview

Defining a Master Teacher

"Master teacher" is a term used freely to identify a model teacher who has excelled and proven effectiveness. The definition may be set by the state, the local school board, or a teacher education program; a master teacher's traits may be perceived differently by educators than the public at large. A master teacher may be recognized by administrators and peers, and even receive compensation for his or her accomplishments, or may simply be a teacher who excels in the classroom quietly and consistently. Experienced education professionals, and students, will "know one when they see one," but a master teacher's impact is felt long after she executes her teaching responsibilities.

Marge Scherer (2001) quotes the maxim of Henry Brooks Adams (1907) that "… a teacher affects eternity. He can never tell where his influence stops." All public school teachers must be certified as defined by state statutes, and under the mandates of the No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB), must also be "highly qualified," but neither of these professional imprimaturs assure that an individual is a master teacher. A master teacher has qualities that may transcend any amount of training received.

The term master teacher came into popular use after the release of the 1993 National Commission on Excellence in Education report, "A Nation at Risk." The follow-up Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy in 1986 issued "A National Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century" that put the teacher at the center of the responsibility to "redesign schools for the future." These reports spurred the initiatives of the last twenty years to improve teaching, teacher training and continuing education and cultivated the concept of master teachers.

Are master teachers born or can they be made? The National Commission on Teaching and America's Future (1996) says that it is a myth to think that anyone can teach, and the ability to manage a group of children or adolescents in a classroom is an awesome challenge. In their report, they say that "The belief that anyone can teach - or the view that teaching skills cannot be taught - is misguided and dangerous" (p. 52); however, this is not to say that those with the motivation and innate talent cannot grow their capabilities and skills.

Although everyone is not cut out to be a teacher, those who have the ambition to be one can develop and be taught the skills; the road to master teacher should begin in the teacher education program. The NCTAF report includes the statement that "fully prepared teachers are more highly rated and more effective with students than those whose background lacks one or more of the elements of formal teacher education - subject matter preparation, knowledge about teaching and learning, and guided clinical experience" (1996, p. 52).

Common Traits of Master Teachers

Although a master teacher may have intangible talents, there are obviously skills and qualities that can be learned to allow them to surface. What are some of the traits that characterize a master teacher? Research conducted by Harold Wenglinsky (2000) in a report written for the Educational Testing Service found that there are three indicators that make a difference to improving student achievement:

• Classroom practice,

• Professional development and

• The teacher's education and experience.

Charlotte Danielson, also from the Educational Testing Service, was quoted as saying that,

. . . the mark of a distinguished classroom is a 'distinguished teacher' who has mastered a number of skills in four broad domains: planning and preparation, classroom environment, instruction, and professional responsibilities. Teachers who are adept at engaging students in learning, a skill she defines as the heart of instruction, demonstrate mastery of a number of performance standards" (as cited in Black, 2004, p. 40).

The bottom line identity of a master teacher is his or her ability to effect measurable student achievement. Polk (2006) reviewed the research literature and named ten traits of effective teachers:

• Good prior academic performance,

• Communication skills,

• Creativity,

• Professionalism,

• Pedagogical knowledge,

• Thorough and appropriate student evaluation and assessment,

• Self-development or lifelong learning,

• Personality,

• Talent or content area knowledge, and

• The ability to model concepts in their content area (Polk, 2006, p. 23).

Polk targets the traits that are universal and not subject dependent:

• Professional development,

• Communication,

• Personality, and

• Teacher ability or modeling.

Professional Development

Effective teachers, he says are lifelong learners and "do as the students do." Teachers need support to continue to learn and Polk does not believe that this support is found in in-service programs. He points to reflective inquiry as a proven practice to enhance lifelong learning - teachers staying current in their fields and a supportive learning environment in their schools: "Can teachers righteously chide students for complaining about attending class when they themselves complain about going to class?" (2006, p. 24).

Communication

Polk believes that good oral and written communication is defined by the clarity of a teacher's information delivery; i.e., how easy it is for students to understand the information that is conveyed. He also points to research that indicates that "teacher intensity" such as eye contact, closeness to students, voice, and gestures are part of a "global level of enthusiasm" (2006, p. 25) typical of effective teachers. Communication, he says, is a skill that certainly can be studied and practiced in teacher training.

Personality

Polk references a substantial body of research that indicates that personality is a major indicator of teaching effectiveness, but it is much more elusive than the other traits. Although it can be assessed from student evaluations, it is recognized that it is the most inflexible of the traits. Effective teachers, he says, know themselves and are able to "adapt their instruction to their personal strengths" (2006, p. 26).

Ability or Modeling

Teacher ability or modeling, Polk's, last universal trait, involves "alternating teacher demonstrations with student imitation" (p. 27). Polk goes on to say that less talk and more hands-on is a philosophy shared by most master teachers. He identified supportive research that indicates that if a teacher is good at modeling (making music), then she is likely to do it more often (frequency), resulting in better student performance (improved outcomes). As Scherer (2001) notes, "Students always outperformed their peers when they had a teacher who used hands-on learning activities and emphasized higher-order thinking skills" (p. 5).

Further Insights

Handling Discipline

Master teachers can handle the tough assignments. The best excel at discipline and like challenges such as working with students at risk. Robinson (2004) studied "at risk" students and asked master music teachers about the techniques that they use to handle challenging students. Their responses are full of common sense techniques, most of which are obviously not always so easy to execute. The master teachers reportedly are never confrontational, always treat students with respect and work to gain a student's respect, never lower their standards and have high expectations, and always try to make their classroom inviting.

Merrion (1990), also a music educator, asked why master teachers do not have problems with discipline. Her responses reinforce what the prior writers cited as she sees a "seamless web between their mastery of instructional and behavior management." Master music teachers are also good musicians; they know their subject matter. Also, they have high standards and are intense. They are also enthusiastic and skilled at time management. According to Merrion, the best teachers strike a balance between making music and being student-oriented.

Classroom Differentiation

Master teachers can handle complex teaching situations, such as accommodating a range of learning needs within a diverse classroom. One skill that master teachers develop is using differentiation within a diverse classroom, which is a technique to allow for varying solutions to problems so that students of different abilities, interest or learning needs have equal experience in ways to absorb, use, develop and present concepts during the learning process.

Carolan and Guinn (2007) say that "many expert teachers were master differentiators long before the term was popularized" (p. 44). They observed five master teachers in two middle schools who were responsible for regular education classrooms that also had students with physical and learning disabilities and identified four common skills that each of these master teachers tapped regularly. First, the teachers employed scaffolding, which is a temporary support that helps "a learner bridge the gap between what he or she needs to do to succeed at a learning task" (p. 45). An example of scaffolding is to give a student a metaphor that relates the learning task to their own reality. The teachers also used flexible means to reach defined ends; mined their subject expertise; and created a caring classroom in which differences are seen as assets. The master teachers found time to address students individually and when they faltered, found examples, metaphors or other ideas that helped the student understand a concept. They also allowed students to take different routes suited to their abilities and learning styles to master the same lesson.

Supporting Master Teachers

In these times of accountability and standards, programs have sprung up to develop master teachers and to recognize them for their development and achievements. Increasingly, those who aspire to be formally recognized as a master teacher are achieving that status through formal certification, particularly that offered by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Over 60,000 teachers now hold this certification. It is prestigious and many who achieve it receive a financial award from their state or school district.

Master teachers do not stand on their laurels. They are often held up as models by their administrators and are called on formally or informally to demonstrate their skills or share them with less experienced teachers. Although master teachers who are identified as such by their schools usually continue to teach in their classrooms, they are sometimes asked to take on a larger role in their school and may not have a permanent classroom. Many master teachers become mentors or are identified as "lead teachers," but in many schools, these are not the same role.

A consistent thread that runs through the articles on successful master teachers is the importance of the critical need for the support of their administrators to thrive. Without a supportive principal, a master teacher can languish. They may be able to affect student learning in their classroom, but they can easily be wasted as a leader or model in the school. Carlile (2006) was asked by her principal to talk with a parent who had disagreed and complained about the content of her English classes. The principal trusted her, and told the parent that she must speak to her directly. They talked and after 15 minutes, the principal returned as the parent responded that he wished that he had had a teacher like her. She used her master teacher skills with a bit of directness and honesty to defuse what was a potentially litigious situation.

Professional Organizations

the master teacher concept. The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) is the most visible and prominent organization that certifies "master teachers." Established in 1987, the NBPTS advances the quality of teaching and learning by "maintaining high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do; providing a national voluntary system certifying teachers who meet these standards; and advocating related education reforms to integrate National Board Certification in American education and to capitalize on the expertise of National Board Certified Teachers."

In order to achieve certification, a licensed teacher must have at least three years of teaching experience and then must prepare a portfolio, including videotapes of teaching and demonstration of accomplishments outside of the classroom. Subject knowledge assessment is a major component of the process. The Board has standards available for 25 certificate fields.

The American Board for Certification of Teacher Excellence (ABCTE) is another non-profit organization that is dedicated to "recruiting, certifying and supporting excellent teachers essential for achieving student success" (ABCTE, n.d.). It is recognized as an organization that certifies career-changers in a number of states, but it has also piloted a "Distinguished Teacher" program offering certification in three categories.

The National Institute for Excellence in Teaching, funded by the Milken Family Foundation, sponsored development programs for teachers around the U.S. in the fall of 2007-08. Their objective is to strengthen the teacher corps and to attract teachers to lower performing schools. According to their website, their TAP (Teaching as a Profession) program focuses on supporting teachers' "multiple career paths, ongoing applied professional growth, instructionally focused accountability, and performance based compensation."

Archer (2001) reported on implementation of a TAP program in Phoenix, Arizona where motivated and talented teachers vie for paid positions as master teachers and mentors in their school. The objective was to bolster student performance by creating new incentives and supports for teachers. It presented elective career opportunities for the motivated and talented who are effective teachers.

One teacher in the Madison Camelview School in the Phoenix TAP program, "…recognized as an exceptionally competent educator … puts in extra hours to observe, coach, and advise her colleagues" (Archer, 2001, par. 3). For her efforts, she received an additional $7,000 a year and the title of "master teacher." Another teacher, a "mentor," is assigned responsibility to help plan continuing education programs, and receives $3,000. One of the other talented teachers in the school who has many family obligations opted not to pursue additional responsibilities, but was happy to take advantage of the support of the master and mentor teachers remained in the school's third category as an "associate teacher." At Camelview, master teachers don't have their own classrooms, but do teach part-time. They also attend "professional-development block" four times a week.

The concept of career ladders for teachers continues to draw interest and experimentation as teachers are rewarded with higher salaries or other compensation for continuing to improve and excel in the classroom rather than moving up the educational ladder for administration. The career ladder concept was introduced in the Carnegie Task Force on Teaching as a Profession report in 1986. The Rochester, New York school district has been cited frequently for implementing such a plan with very attractive salary scales (Lavely, 1990). The most experienced career teachers there were called "lead" teachers who even in 1987 could earn as much as $70,000 a year.

Viewpoints

In a provocative article Keller (2007) highlighted the success of the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS), but wondered whether it is not challenged by its success. The sub-title of Keller's article reads that "as more earn the credential, some say value could diminish increase in supply - raises question of value of certification." Over 60,000 had achieved the demanding certification by the end of 2007 and Keller says that if this continues, 2 percent of all teachers will have the credential by the end of 2008. Dilworth (2007), a vice president at NBPTS, rebutted Keller's claim and said that "more certified teachers means that more students will benefit … Would anyone suggest professional credentials in law, medicine, or accounting are diminished when more professionals in these fields earn advanced certification?" (2007, par.3).

Keller goes on to make the statement that although few fail master's degree courses, only "40 percent of first-time applicants pass the national board's assessments" and only "about two-thirds of those who resubmit revised work achieve the credential" (2007, Process Scrutinized).

Her implication that master's degree courses were rubber stamps prompted another response, this time from teacher R. Browning (2007) who says that a master's degree should be the minimum standards for teachers, but master's degree students are successful not because the courses are easy, but because they have made a professional commitment to succeed as teachers. She admits that the master's teacher certification is an achievement in the pursuit of excellence and says that it is best for an individual to achieve both.

Keller's (2007) discussion and evidence is very objective, so what data is there that NBPTS certification is having an impact on identifying or certifying master teachers resulting in improved student achievement? The NBPTS website justifies its processes with a raft of research studies that are summarized in the pamphlet, "A Research Guide on National Board Certification of Teachers." The report includes a substantial bibliography of research articles and recognizes that the studies are not all overwhelmingly positive. The research does include a number of studies that validate that NBPTS-educated students generally achieve higher test scores and become more engaged in "deeper thinking" or higher level thinking skills. Research studies also indicate that completion of the certification process improves teacher practice and that master teachers engage in "transformative" professional development and mentoring and certified master teachers stay in the field longer. The most negative findings indicate that certified master teachers are still much more likely to work in suburban and rural schools and are found less often in low-income urban schools.

Bohen (2001) reports on a case study of 13 candidates for National Board certification. Her objective was to determine how the certification process improved their teaching practices. Outcomes that the teachers cited included increased professional satisfaction, an improvement in analysis of instruction and a clearer focus on student outcomes. Bohen's article recognized the strong continued support for the certification program and its impact on "building unprecedented national momentum for change" (p. 53).

Many states offer financial reward for certification, which most certainly is a motivator to many teachers to engage in the process, whether they be of master teacher caliber or not. On the other hand, in her article, Keller (2007) points out that some of the best teachers may not pursue national certification, and some may even see the credentialing process as a drain on their teaching preparation time. The statement most likely contains more than a grain of truth, but nevertheless, those who seek to improve and to aspire to excellence, no matter how many, should not be faulted.

Terms & Concepts

Certification / Licensure: State certification or licensure is a minimum standard for teachers and requirements for certification vary from state to state. Most states require a college degree, specified courses, practice teaching, and increasingly passing a standardized examination.

Differentiation: Developed for gifted and talented children, differentiation has found application in a general classroom, where it is recognized that there are is a range of differences between individuals. Differentiating instruction is a technique which allows for varying solutions to problems so that students of different abilities, interest or learning needs have equal experience in ways to absorb, use, develop and present concepts during the learning process.

Highly Qualified Teachers: The No Child Left Behind Act (2001), backed by the regulations and guidance of the U.S. Department of Education requires of states that teachers be highly qualified with minimum standard of a bachelor's degree; full state certification or licensure; and proof that they are competent and knowledgeable of each subject that they teach. These are minimum requirements; master teachers exceed them.

four rungs on the teacher career ladder, with a "lead teacher" on the top rung. They specified that lead teachers would earn $70,000 for year-round work. (Lavely, 1990). "Lead teacher" usually implies leadership roles within a school and some administrative (curricular) responsibilities.

Master Teacher: uperior pedagogical skills and whose students demonstrate achievement beyond the norm. A certified "Master Teacher" is one who has successfully completed a rigorous certification process, especially that offered by the National Board for Professional Teaching Standards. Certification involves an evaluation of teaching skills and out-of-classroom accomplishments and assessment of subject knowledge.

National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) The National Board for Professional Teaching Standards (NBPTS) was established as a direct recommendation of the 1986 task force report, "A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century." Its mission is three-fold: “to establish high and rigorous standards for what accomplished teachers should know and be able to do; to develop and operate a national voluntary system to assess and certify teachers who meet these standards; and to advance related education reforms for the purpose of improving student learning in America's schools” (NBPTS, 2008).

A Nation at Risk: With a charge from President Reagan to present to the American people a study on the quality of American education, The National Commission on Excellence in Education, a group composed of distinguished educators, administrators and government officials was convened in August 1981. The Commission's report "A Nation at Risk: an Imperative for Educational Reform" was presented to the Secretary of Education in April 1983. It found that American education was mired in mediocrity, was being outperformed by international rivals, and was not preparing students for the jobs of the future. Among the Commission's seven major recommendations was the objective to " improve the preparation of teachers or to make teaching a more rewarding and respected profession."

No Child Left Behind Act of 2001 (NCLB): The No Child Left Behind Act, Federal legislation enacted in 2001, is due for renewal in 2007. A primary goal of the Act is to close educational achievement gaps and to bring underperforming schools up to higher, acceptable standards. This includes the requirement that every child should be taught by a highly qualified teacher.

Scaffolding: Scaffolding is a technique used by teachers to use "temporary structures" to help a student successfully succeed at a learning task. Examples of "scaffolds" might be step-by-step, clear instructions for completing the task or a clear explanation of the objective of the task. Teachers may use multiple scaffolds to guide students through the learning task. Once a student has mastered the task, the scaffolding can be "dismantled."

Bibliography

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Bohen, D. (2001, May). Strengthening teaching through national certification. Educational Leadership, 58 , 50-53. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4632775&site=ehost-live

Browning, R. (2007). Master's degrees create master teachers, specialists. [Letter to the editor]. Education Week, 27 , 26. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=26692630&site=ehost-live

Carlile, V. (2006). Observations from a journey of a master teacher. School Administrator, 63 , 5. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20976796&site=ehost-live

Carnegie Forum on Education and the Economy. (1986). A nation prepared: teachers for the 21st Century. Washington, DC: Carnegie Forum. Carolan, J., & Guinn, A. (2007). Differentiation: lessons from master teachers. Educational Leadership, 64 , 44-47. Retrieved December 15, 2007, from from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23996912&site=ehost-live

Dilworth, M. (2007). National-Board growth: a boon, not a challenge. [Letter to the editor]. Education Week, 27 , 28-29. Retrieved November 25, 2007, from from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26911058&site=ehost-live

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Keller, B. (2007). The National Board: challenged by success? (Cover story). Education Week, 26 , 1-16. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=26260467&site=ehost-live

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Robinson, N. R. (2004). Who is "at risk" in the music classroom? Music Educators Journal, 90 , p. 38-43.

Rodriguez, V., & Lynneth Solis, S. S. (2013). Teachers' awareness of the learner-teacher interaction: Preliminary communication of a study investigating the teaching brain. Mind, Brain & Education, 7, 161-169. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89768994&site=ehost-live

Rosenshine, B. (2012). Principles of instruction. Education Digest, 78, 30-40. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82981850&site=ehost-live

Salmon, D., Rossman, A., & Dipinto, V. (2012). Knowing by doing and doing by knowing. Science Scope, 35, 70-74. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=71275459&site=ehost-live

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Wenglinsky, H. (2000). How teaching matters; bringing the classroom back into discussions of teacher quality. Princeton, New Jersey: Educational Testing Service and the Milken Family Foundation. Website visited December 13, 2007. http://www.ets.org/research/pic/teamat.pdf

Suggested Readings

Brinthaupt, T. M. & R. P. Lipka. (1999). The role of self in teacher development. Albany, New York: State University of New York Press.

Foster, M., Lewis, J. & Onafowora, L. (2005). Grooming great urban teachers. Educational Leadership, 62 , 28-32.

Hallinan, M. T. & Khmelkov, V. T. (2001). Recent developments in teacher education in the United States of America. Journal of Education for Teaching, , 2.

Holloway, J. (2001). The benefits of mentoring. Educational Leadership, 58 , 85-86. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier.

Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers, 82 , 40-43. Retrieved December 13, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier.