Multicultural Curricula

Abstract

This article explores the concept of multicultural education by first defining the opposing models and consequent issues that are relevant to this field. The article examines the arguments between advocates of two opposing views on US education in relation to ethnic groups and attempts to clarify the meanings within the arguments by questioning any assumed definitions of culture, history, or other central ideas. The paper then examines some research paradigms and their relation to multicultural curricula, explains the research findings, and defines the objectives and procedures to develop multicultural curricula. This article also examines the social policy and legal structure that surrounds multicultural education at present.

Overview

Assimilation vs. Multiculturalism. The two basic models for understanding culture within America's society and system of education are assimilation and multiculturalism. These are two contrasting interethnic ideologies that consequently shape two different types of public policy, which in turn creates two different directions in the US educational system. We should understand the specific definitions and approaches of assimilation and multiculturalism for several reasons; the main reason to explore these two basic concepts is that they essentially represent the two sides of what has long been a hotly debated issue in America. Thus, by clearly defining and understanding the deeper theoretical bases of the two fundamental concepts, we can quickly come to understand what multicultural education really means, as well as what has been at stake in the US system of education.

Cultural assimilation is the theory that members of an ethno-cultural group, usually immigrants (or even American minority groups), are absorbed into an established, larger community, in this case a dominant mainstream American culture. Advocates of the assimilation approach believe America has a single American culture that bonds all American citizens. Assimilation means that minority and ethnic groups should adapt to that mainstream American culture rather than America accommodating various outside cultures. As Wolsko, Park and Judd (2006) note, in education theory there is a “primary tension between advocates of assimilation and advocates of multiculturalism” (p. 278). The authors observe that assimilation advocates believe we must maintain America's “traditional melting pot ideal,” according to which diverse ethnic groups “coalesce into a nation of individuals” (Wolsko, Park & Judd, 2006, p. 278).

However, in the past several decades, this "melting pot" ideal has been increasingly called into question. In The Melting-Pot Metaphor, author Ruth Walker (2006) poses the question, "Is it a good thing for newcomers to America to give up their ancestral languages, their perhaps richer traditions of extended family life, or their more interesting food to become, in effect, pretend Anglos?" (Walker, 2006). Her question also points out what has historically predominated in American culture: it is largely based upon White Anglo-Saxon traditions, beliefs, literature, religion, art, music—in short, culture. Walker notes that, these days, there is a growing trend toward multiculturalism, and not assimilation, and that the traditional "melting pot" metaphor has transformed into newer metaphors such as "salad bowl" and "mosaic." These are conceptions of American culture wherein immigrant populations and ethnic groups within the US are not being absorbed into a larger, Anglo-Saxon culture, but rather are themselves transforming American society and culture into a multicultural mosaic—even if the power structure of America is largely White, Anglo-Saxon, and Protestant. This of course can cause some social and political friction.

Transitional Multiculturalism. Transitional multiculturalism is, in actuality, very close to the concept of assimilation. This form of multiculturalism maintains that ethnic and racial differences do exist but are temporary and should be overcome to assimilate into a mainstream, monocultural America. Transitional multiculturalism is the most acceptable form of multiculturalism for assimilation advocates since it allows multiculturalism only upon a temporary basis. According to Brown and Ratcliff (1998), those who believe in assimilation tend to adopt what sounds like the nomenclature of multiculturalism, but this is done with the agenda of accomplishing the goals of assimilation. As the authors put it, "A transformed monoculturalist, who adopts the language of multiculturalism, comes to regard cultural traditions, language, values, and norms of minority groups as vestigial" (Brown & Ratcliff, 1998, p. 13).

Assimilation theorists believe that when ethnicity is turned into an important defining characteristic in a society, it then promotes division rather than unity. For this reason, they believe that a multicultural perspective and style of education is destructive to the fabric of American culture, and that promoting difference is divisive. Speaking for those who desire an assimilative model, Duignan (1995) says, "We do not want multiculturalism dividing us into separate groups. Let the Chicanos and other ethnic nationals study their ancestors' language and culture but do so as a second language and after they have done American history" (Duignan, 1995, ¶ 12). This perspective denies the existence of cultural diversities that exist throughout America.

To support the idea that America is not as monocultural as Duignan and others presume, authors Watson and Johnston (2006) observe that American schools "are currently housing the most culturally diverse group of students in the history of American education" (p. 17). They note that some ethnic populations have experienced phenomenal growth in the United States just in the last decade. They also cite the Social Science Data Analysis Network (2001) which finds that "the Hispanic population in the US has increased by 45 percent, while the Asian community grew by 45 percent and the Black and Native American populations have each increased by 15 percent" (Watson & Johnston, 2006, p. 17). The authors observe that a more culturally diverse population of students also means teachers have an increased responsibility to deal with the unique issues and needs these diverse students require. For this reason, among others, perhaps America should be pursuing a more multicultural approach in its educational system and should not presume that American students all live within an identical American monoculture.

A multicultural approach to American history means that historians should attempt to interpret history from a different point of view than a White Anglo-Saxon Protestant point of view, which has been the status quo in American history for American history. What would American history look like if it were written entirely from a Native American point of view, or an African American point of view, and why is this less valid than the traditional White American point of view? These questions are at the heart of a multicultural philosophy in education; such questions increase cognitive sophistication in students by breaking through the assumptions of White students via cognitive dissonance and are good questions considering the growing diversity of the American student population. Multicultural education is a paradigm shift that may help students from diverse cultural backgrounds to better understand their relationship to American history, and their current place in America's polyculture. The approach could help empower them to create a more positive future, which inevitably means a fairer and more positive society and nation.

Brown and Ratcliff (1998) propose that the vast and diverse ethnic composition of the United States require that students are exposed to multicultural curricula. As the authors note, "these curricula need to acknowledge the multiple contexts of the myriad persons and perspectives ... they need sufficient breadth and depth to embody the language, core values and traditions of each racial and ethnic group addressed" (Brown & Ratcliff, 1998, p. 19). They also say that the role of interactions (especially among dominant and under-represented groups) in forming social institutions within society are necessary to examine if we are to provide effective, cogent, and coherent multicultural curricula.

Multicultural Education. Advocates of multicultural education define it as having three central concerns: "validating the identities of socially oppressed groups; teaching the history of exploitation and resistance to it; and providing empowering education to oppressed groups" (Sutton, 2005, p. 97). Although assimilation advocates such as Duignan tend to call this "ethnic cheerleading," they should consider whether this then means the status quo has been nothing more than "White cheerleading". They need to examine their own viewpoint, which is at the heart of multicultural education. Sutton and other multicultural advocates nevertheless agree with Duignan's observation that multicultural education initially grew out of the 1960s revolution. However, rather than a "witch's brew", scholars of multicultural education concur that it grew out of the "civil rights movements in the United States, particularly efforts for the complete enfranchisement of African-Americans" (Sutton, 2005, p. 97). The above idea—that assimilation advocates have failed to examine their own viewpoint—is an important point in need of further elaboration and support since this is the central failure that causes a blindness which, of course, individuals cannot see. Reyes supports this point, and elaborates a metaphor for it when she says,

In America, culture and ethnicity exist primarily within the context of White privilege. Remember the popular metaphor of looking out the window. People become so used to seeing what is outside, they do not notice how the window shapes their perception. Multicultural awareness means refocusing our eyes so that we see the window. Is there a windowpane? Does the glass have a crack? Is there a screen? How do those factors influence our view of what we think we see? To help students see the windows of their culture, we need to engage White students in a dialogue about their culture, worldview, and privilege (Reyes, 2004, ¶ 17). Though the US has made considerable progress since the years of the Civil Rights movements, schools and education continue to suffer in the twenty-first century to accurately consider diversity (Akkari &Radhouane, 2022).

The author was compelled to write her article after she was invited by another educator to lecture in a college class about diverse ethnic groups. Afterwards, the host professor asked Ms. Reyes to share with the students something about the development of her ethnic identity as an American Latina (Reyes, 2004, ¶ 2). Reyes describes a feeling of isolation and vulnerability from this experience, as if she were at a show-and-tell before the White class. She writes that she found herself wondering whether "one of my White colleagues would ever hear: 'In the time we have left, I wonder if you could tell us a bit about when you came to grips with your White privilege or racism?'" (Reyes, 2004, ¶ 4). Reyes is pointing out that even within the university setting there exists that unexamined foundation upon which the status quo rests (like that window where the cracks in the glass are not even noticed), and this status quo is essentially a privileged White Anglo-Saxon Protestant system. Reyes also points out that "in dialogues on race relations, many Whites say that they have no culture, or that they are simply 'American.' Too often we fail to challenge those assertions ... White students and professors need to explore their own identities. It is too easy to focus on the group that we see as the other instead of exploring ourselves" (Reyes, 2004, ¶ 15). A book of multicultural exploration, The AmeriCzech Dream, uses the following analogy to describe this phenomenon:

A fish that is born and lives all its life in a fishbowl with water of a certain temperature cannot understand what that temperature is (how can it know anything more than what it knows?), but if the fish is put into a different fishbowl of a different temperature (as a person placed in a different society and culture) then it can use the two temperatures to measure against each other and thereby understand the temperature of each environment much better than a fish who never left his fishbowl. (Nicholas, 2005, p. 2)

Related to this concept of stepping outside one's culture, Watson and Johnston (2006) cite a good example of a lesson that teachers could implement to create heightened multicultural awareness, although this lesson was actually used in a university education class for future teachers. In this example lesson, a teacher of Hispanic origin begins the class activity speaking only in Spanish. The teacher hands out some supplementary reading (in Spanish), some papers and pencils, and continues to present the activity on an overhead projector, all the time speaking only in Spanish. Students find themselves both lost and frustrated. After this lesson, the teacher and students have "a discussion related to the feelings they may have experienced during the activity, including isolation, frustration, anger, upsetness, and confusion. Candidates reflect on their feelings and in the process have a better understanding of what [English Language Learners] ELL students experience" (Watson & Johnston, 2006, p. 17).

Applications

The Multicultural Curricula. One centrally important aspect to multicultural curricula is the idea that students need to learn how to examine mainstream American culture from without it, rather than within it. Just as individuals have great difficulty seeing themselves as others see them, no nation is very good at seeing into its own culture. As a society, this is that cultural blind-spot inherent in mainstream White America, and this is the unexamined position from which people such as Duignan pontificate about radical "ethnics" creating a "witch's brew". Though Reyes and other multicultural educators discourage this privileged White viewpoint, they do not wish to discourage efforts to increase multicultural awareness, but rather believe that the current system inherently expects the ethnic minorities to do all the educating about diversity. Multicultural curriculum is designed to teach students how to examine their own cultural biases, and to learn about other coexisting cultural systems within America—and also the rest of the world. As Sutton notes, "Whatever its specific connotations, and there are many, the term 'multicultural education' speaks to questions of how school children are taught about their own social identity and the identity of others" (Sutton, 2005, p. 98).

Duignan and advocates of assimilation believe this approach creates more tension and antagonism, and, as Wolsko et al. observe, "much of the current political opposition to multiculturalism is based on fear that emphasizing ethnic group differences will create more antagonism and discrimination between groups." They also point out that mainstream social psychological studies of prejudice, some of which have been used to support Duignan's position, are usually based in a research paradigm which argues that observing greater differences between ethnic groups will cause “greater levels of evaluative bias and intergroup conflict.” But Wolsko et al. carried out some studies that call into question these assumptions, as well as the research paradigm that supports those assumptions. They performed research in 2000 indicating that people who were encouraged to adopt a multicultural ideology saw greater differences between ethnic groups, yet they viewed ethnic outgroups more positively relative to a control group. Thus, their experimental research demonstrates that, "relative to participants in a control condition, participants who were encouraged to think in terms of a multicultural ideology saw more differences between groups (higher category differentiation) and expressed less negativity toward outgroups, relative to their ingroup (lower evaluative bias)" (Wolsko et al., 2006, p. 280).

Wolsko et al. forward the theory that assimilation provides more of an affirmation to the ethnic majority's identity, but more of a threat to the ethnic minority's identity. They argue that "for Whites, embracing the societal ideal of assimilation amounts to endorsing the sanctity of the White American worldview … on the other hand, for ethnic minorities, adopting assimilation ultimately requires relinquishing some degree of allegiance to one's prior ethnic or cultural heritage" (Wolsko et al., 2006, p. 281).

Thus, according to Wolsko et al., “assimilation is identity-threatening for minority group members and identity-affirming for majority group members, and multiculturalism is identity-threatening for majority group members and identity-affirming for minority group members” (p. 302). Wolsko et al. pursued this hypothesis further in their 2006 research and found revealing correlations between group membership and contrasting interethnic ideologies. Their research showed that these ideologies "can be successfully measured, and have significant consequences for shaping public policy, and describe important ways in which conceptions about the optimal functioning of an ethnically diverse society vary according to one's group membership" (Wolsko et al., 2006, p. 302). Regardless, multicultural education creates in the majority group a more positive feeling about various ethnic minorities, as Wolsko et al. demonstrated in their research of 2000.

Effective Multicultural Curricula. According to Brown and Ratcliff (1998), research at the elementary, secondary, and post-secondary levels in the United States shows positive effects of multicultural curricula. The authors also list several important factors that influence the effectiveness of multicultural curricula, and these factors should be considered when educators form multicultural curricula for their students:

• Curricular content (democratic versus ethnocentric)
• Understanding of the discrepancies between current and desired conditions relative to race, ethnicity, and multicultural interactions in society
• Specific objectives and strategies for teaching multicultural education
• Instructional strategies to increase cognitive sophistication
• Attitudes and disposition of faculty as manifested verbally and nonverbally in regard to differences in dialect and languages, values, and learning styles among students
• Duration of the training given to faculty members teaching course of study
• Hidden curricular and institution factors that facilitate or impede the success of courses (Brown & Ratcliff, 1998, p. 20).

To complement the above points, Watson and Johnston offer a list of fundamental characteristics of multicultural higher education. These characteristics are in effect a mission statement as well as the general objectives for training the teachers who then create multicultural curricula:

• Cultural differences have strength and value.
• Schools and institutions of higher learning should be models for the community in reflecting respect for cultural differences and expression of human rights.
• Social justice and equality for all people should be of paramount importance in the design and delivery of curricula.
• Attitudes and values necessary for the continuation of a democratic society can be promoted in schools and institutions of higher learning.
• Schooling can provide the knowledge, skills, and dispositions, for redistribution of power and income among diverse groups of people.
• Educators at institutes of higher learning work with local communities to create an environment that is supportive of respect for diversity and multiculturalism (Watson & Johnston, 2006, p. 14).

Viewpoints

Public Policy & Legislation. One last important area to describe is the current legal framework surrounding the development of multicultural curricula in the US First, there are the policies outlined for teaching the nation's teachers about multicultural curricula. Colleges of education must adhere to the National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE, 2002) Standard number 4, Diversity. Standard 4 states:

The unit designs, implements, and evaluates curriculum and experiences for candidates to acquire and apply the knowledge, skills, and dispositions necessary to help all students learn. These experiences include working with diverse higher education and school faculty, diverse candidates, and diverse students in P-12 schools.

In addition, the Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (1992) (INTASC) has outlined its Principle Number 3, which provides colleges and universities with a venue for teacher candidates to adhere to cultural sensitivity (Watson & Johnston, 2006, p. 14).

However, we should note that there is no federal policy that stipulates developing multicultural curricula. As Sutton notes,

Canada and Australia continue to stand in contrast to the United States by virtue of having codified multicultural policies in education and other areas of public culture. Despite widespread public debate, policies related to multicultural education in the United States are either piecemeal, such as specific standards in state curriculum frameworks, or embedded in school district mission statements that lack compliance mechanisms. (Sutton, 2005, p. 103)

Some states have initiated their own policies and programs for developing multicultural curricula. Here are the current policies relating to the field, as summarized by The Education Commission of the States:

• Rhode Island (2022) required the inclusion of an educational unit of study focused on Asian American, Native Hawaiian and Pacific Islander history starting in the 2023-2024 year; (2000) required the state education agency to devise curricular materials on genocide and human rights violations, the slave trade, the great hunger in Ireland, the Holocaust, and other subjects.
• New Jersey (2021) amended laws regarding curriculum to require students K-12 to receive diversity and inclusion education; (2019) required "each board of education to provide instruction on the political, economic and social contributions of persons with disabilities and lesbian, gay, bisexual and transgender people" (Your question: Our response, 2022) for middle and high school students; (2002) formed an Amistad Commission to coordinate educational and other programs on slavery and African American history in public and nonpublic schools.
• New Mexico (2021) created a new position, Black Education Liaison and the Black Education Advisory Council, to guide educational curriculum concerning Black history and culture; (2003) required multicultural content for a percentage of instructional material approved by the state board of education.
• Illinois (2021) required each public elementary and high school "to include a unit of instruction studying the events of Asian American history and outline requirements for the instruction" beginning in 2022 (Your question: Our response, 2022); (2005) created an Amistad Commission to survey the extent of education on slavery and to talk with textbook publishers, coordinate programs, and work with the state board of education to craft curricula on slavery topics.
• New York (2005) established the Amistad Commission to coordinate educational and other programs on slavery and African American history.
• Tennessee's (2005) board of education unanimously adopted a new uniform curriculum for African American history, an increasingly popular elective course in the state's high schools ("Multicultural Curricula," 2006, p. 7).

The quest to develop a multicultural approach in US education is "the continuing pursuit of a stratagem which both acknowledges and utilizes the racially, ethnically and linguistically diverse groups along with the dominant majority to support and maintain diversity, tolerance and, ultimately, community" (Brown & Ratcliff, 1998, p. 20). Brown and Ratcliff believe that the struggle over race, ethnicity, language, and culture will continue being hotly debated and argued over as long as dominant groups remain exclusive enclaves of superiority that under-represented and marginalized groups must entreat for access and equality of opportunity. Renewed interest in multicultural education grew following the police killing of George Floyd, an unarmed Black man, in 2020 and the growth of the Black Lives Matter movement, as the nation reckoned with its long history of systemic racism. States continued to push for increased multicultural curricula in their schools throughout the twenty-first century, which is particularly important considering the student population will also be increasingly diverse in its cultural and ethnic background, but critics argued that more should be done to increase diversity in educational standards and materials.

Terms & Concepts

Affirmative Action: Legislative policies targeted to a historically socio-politically repressed group such as people of color or women, which are intended to advance access to education or employment opportunities. Affirmative action policies attempt to redress the effects of past and continuing discrimination and to encourage public institutions to be more accurately representative of the wider population.

Assimilation: A process of cultural integration by which members of an immigrant ethno-cultural or minority group are "absorbed" into an established, wider, and larger community and become more similar than different. In the process, many characteristics of the original culture are given up or replaced.

Cultural Imperialism: The open or implicit practice of promoting or injecting the culture or language of one nation onto another. Usually, the former is a more economically or militarily powerful nation and the latter is a smaller, more dependent one. This concept also refers to a dominant culture within a nation that also has other ethnic groups with diverse cultures but are less powerful and fewer in number.

Education Commission of the States (ECS): An organization that helps states develop effective policy and practice for public education by providing data, research, analysis, and leadership; and by facilitating collaboration, the exchange of ideas among the states and long-range strategic thinking (www.ecs.org).

Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC): A consortium of state education agencies and national educational organizations dedicated to the reform of the preparation, licensing, and on-going professional development of teachers. Created in 1987, INTASC's primary constituency is state education agencies responsible for teacher licensing, program approval, and professional development (www.nacctep.com).

Melting Pot: A metaphor originally used to describe large waves of multi-country immigration which occurred in the United States in the nineteenth and twentieth centuries. It refers to the way in which homogeneous societies evolve through the assimilation of people of different cultures, races, and religions, combining in a “pot” to create a multi-ethnic society.

Multiculturalism: A state of cultural and ethnic diversity within the demographics of a geographic region or social space. Multiculturalism policies are aimed at preserving the cultures or cultural identities of immigrant groups within a larger society. Multicultural societies extend equal status to distinct cultural and religious groups, without a predominating single culture. The term is also used to describe a society consisting of minority immigrant cultures existing alongside a predominant mainstream culture, such as in the United States.

National Council for Accreditation of Teacher Education (NCATE): According to the Council’s website, NCATE was founded in 1954 as a mechanism to help establish high quality teacher preparation. Through the process of professional accreditation of schools, colleges, and departments of education, NCATE worked to make a difference in the quality of teaching and teacher preparation. NCATE’s performance-based system of accreditation fostered competent classroom teachers and other educators who worked to improve the education of all P-12 students. NCATE was recognized by the US Department of Education as an accrediting institution specific to teacher education. In 2013, NCATE became the Council for the Accreditation of Educator Preparation (CAEP) following its merger with the Teacher Education Accreditation Council (TEAC).

White Anglo-Saxon Protestant (WASP): The WASP acronym originated in the United States to refer to White Americans of Anglo-Saxon descent with an established history in the upper class, and who are perceived as forming a powerful elite social group.

Bibliography

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Nicholas, S. (2005). The AmeriCzech Dream. WD Publications.

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Reyes, E. (2004). Whose culture is it, anyway? Chronicle of Higher Education, 51, B5. Retrieved November 23, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=14622811&site=ehost-live

Suriel, R. L., & Atwater, M. M. (2012). From the contribution to the action approach: White teachers' experiences influencing the development of multicultural science curricula. Journal of Research in Science Teaching, 49, 1271–1295.Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83487460&site=ehost-live

Sutton, M. (2005). The globalization of multicultural education. Indiana Journal of Global Legal Studies, 12, 97–108. Retrieved November 23, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16844763&site=ehost-live

Walker, R. (2006). The melting-pot metaphor. Christian Science Monitor, 98, 18. Retrieved November 23, 2007, from https://www.csmonitor.com/2006/1124/p18s02-hfes.html

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Washington, Samantha. (2018). Diversity in schools must include curriculum. The Century Foundation. Retrieved May 29, 2023, from https://tcf.org/content/commentary/diversity-schools-must-include-curriculum

Wolsko, C., Park, B., & Judd, C. (2006). Considering the Tower of Babel: Correlates of assimilation and multiculturalism among ethnic minority and majority groups in the United States. Social Justice Research, 19, 277–306. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22297920&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bigler, R. (1999). The use of multicultural curricula and materials to counter racism in children. Journal of Social Issues, 55, 687–705. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3067676&site=ehost-live

Lee, A., Poch, R., Shaw, M., & Williams, R. D. (2012). Developing a pedagogy that supports intercultural competence. ASHE Higher Education Report, 38, 45–63. Retrieved October 8, 2014, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=84525760&site=ehost-live

MacCabe, C., Ali, M., Carlin, P., Gilroy, P., Hext, K., Kureishi, H., . . . Young, S. (2006). Multiculturalism after 7/7: A CQ seminar. Critical Quarterly, 48, 1–44. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=21625464&site=ehost-live

Gay, G. (1975). Organizing and designing culturally pluralistic curriculum. Educational Leadership, 33, 176. Retrieved November 24, 2007, from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=7721452&site=ehost-live