Outdoor Adventure Education

Abstract

This article summarizes the past and present of outdoor adventure education (OAE). OAE is examined especially in terms of its origins, historical and theoretical influences, accreditation of the field, program types and styles, research and studies, efficacy of OAE, and the validity of research studies on OAE.

Keywords Accreditation programs; Adventure-based model; Association for Experiential Education (AEE); At-risk youth; Challenge by Choice (CbC); Experiential Education; Inviting Optimum Participation (I-OPt); Outdoor Adventure Education (OAE); Outward Bound Program (OB)

Overview

Outdoor adventure education (OAE) is an experiential method of learning that incorporates the use of all senses. It generally takes place through interaction with the natural environment. In outdoor education, the focus is on relationships among people and natural resources. Outdoor adventure education is an area of education that has developed and continues to develop from two basic roots; these two main influences are combining and evolving to form the area of education called "outdoor adventure education" (OAE). To understand the place of OAE in colleges and universities, we must examine two fundamental areas: 1) outdoor adventure and 2) experiential education.

The outdoor adventure component of OAE began with the German-born founder of the Outward Bound (OB) program, Kurt Hahn, who lived much of his life in England. Hahn was highly concerned with what he thought were modern civilization's "social diseases" or declines, which he believed were causing individuals within society to lose certain positive attributes that previous agrarian societies had naturally cultivated. He posited that the industrial revolution had gradually removed the conditions that cultivated those positive traits. Hahn claimed that modern civilization had caused the following general declines, or "social diseases":

1. A decline in physical fitness due to modern methods of transportation
2. A decline in initiative or enterprise due to a social tendency toward being a spectator rather than participator
3. A decline in the individual's memory and imagination because of confusion and restlessness in modern life
4. A decline in skills and care because traditions of craftsmanship had diminished
5. A decline in self-discipline from an over-reliance upon ubiquitous stimulants and tranquilizers
6. A decline in human compassion because of the hurried lifestyle inherent to a modern lifestyle (Richards, 2007, p. 6)

These six declines were the original motivation for starting the outdoor adventure program, Outward Bound, and as can be seen from the ailments that Outward Bound was created to assuage, pedagogical theory was not, in the beginning, a strong factor.

Hahn started the OB program in England, from whence it eventually came to North America.

In 1962, the Colorado Outward Bound School opened, and from there other OB schools were established throughout North America. Soon after the first OB school, several other similar types of schools came into existence: the National Outdoor Leadership School (NOLS) was established in 1965, Project Adventure was established in 1971, and the Wilderness Education Association was established in 1977. By the mid 1970s, more than 190 adventure programs existed throughout the United States, with over half of these programs in college and university settings. Programs during this period established themselves as capable of supplying a variety of program needs including therapy, recreation, and education (Attarian, 2002, p. 3).

Contemporary Outward Bound courses can be “long wilderness courses, urban education programs, short intense challenge trainings, or even custom courses designed to the needs of the client. Each course is an interpretation of the mission of Outward Bound that suits the needs of the culture, environment, and most importantly, the student needs” (www.outward-bound.org).

For example, the New York City Outward Bound School offers school-based programs wherein Outward Bound's adventure education approach is applied to classes and course subjects to address a specific need. Teachers from elementary, middle, and secondary schools in urban areas and small cities participate in designing Outward Bound courses. Some of the Outward Bound expeditions integrate multiple disciplines such as math, science, humanities, and arts. The courses last less than one week to a semester and vary broadly—one course may involve backpacking through remote mountain areas while another might explore coastal waters by sailboat, canoe, or kayak. However, Outward Bound works with a broad spectrum of participants—from middle school students and "at-risk" youth to company managers and veterans (Outward Bound, 2014). This wide spectrum of participants is a likely cause for the increasing popularity of outdoor adventure programs.

In 1975, the Association for Experiential Education (AEE) began, and throughout the 1980s and 1990s adventure programs continued to experience a steady increase. In 2000, the AEE reached a membership of 670 organizations; most of this growth came from therapeutic programs, programs for women, experience-based training and development programs, and wilderness programs for "at-risk" youth. In 2000, 41 percent of the organizations were experience-based training and development programs, while another 30 percent were programs based in schools and colleges (Attarian, 2002, p. 4). The largest “growth in college and university adventure programs occurred during the environmental movement” between 1970 and 1975, when forty-five new programs joined the AEE. From 1976 to 1999, 128 college outdoor adventure education programs became members of the AEE (Attarian, 2002, p. 5).

There has also been steady growth in “professional preparation programs for higher education with an emphasis on outdoor leadership and adventure recreation” (p. 6). The Society of Park and Recreation Educators, a branch of the National Recreation and Park Association (NRPA), listed seventeen colleges and universities with outdoor leadership courses or degrees in 1987 (Attarian, 2002, p. 6); by 2014, the NRPA website boasted more than four dozen such institutions (National Recreation and Park Association, n.d.). In addition, the American Camping Association (ACA) reported an increase in the number of camps offering adventure activities. In a 2013 ACA Emerging Issues survey, 40.7% of camp administrators reported that they had added new adventure programming in the previous two years.

Establishing a Pedagogy

However, it is actually a second major influence that injected the idea of experiential education into outdoor adventure; this is the more theoretical and pedagogical part of outdoor adventure education and is most often traced back to the progressive educational theories of John Dewey. In the late 1930s, Dewey proposed that subject matter should not be learned in isolation and that education should begin with student experience and be contextual (Breunig, 2005, p.108). OAE is an evolving field of education that is yet defining its position in public education; some educators have been contributing research and academic papers in an attempt to establish a theoretical foundation of pedagogy in outdoor adventure education (particularly aligning it with the Deweyan philosophy), but as Breunig points out, there is still a general perception that "experiential education is experience rich but theory poor" (2005, p.107).

Jay Roberts (2005) also posits Dewey's theories as the educational foundation to outdoor adventure, in that the AEE's definition of experiential education shows a relationship between Deweyan constructions of experience and experiential education. Roberts cites the AEE's definition of experiential education as a "philosophy and methodology in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills, and clarify values" (Roberts, 2005, p.13). This definition easily converges the two roots from which OAE began, but in practice this has been more difficult.

Breunig also argues that the future of outdoor adventure education may yet solidify into the philosophy of Dewey and his idea that education should involve contextual student experience. Breunig gives the example that "a course on desert ecology may use the desert as a classroom and bring the texts, notebooks, pens, and students into this newly defined classroom setting" (Breunig, 2005, p. 108). She concludes that public education should move toward a model of education that gives outdoor adventure education a larger role, because a split exists that needs to be resolved:

Imparting theoretical knowledge is no longer enough. In turn, an isolated experience that is disconnected to a broader theory or set of ideas is also insufficient. There is great potential in combining the best of both. The post-secondary experiential education classroom provides one site for the pursuit of a critical pedagogical praxis that is rich in both theory and practice (Breunig, 2005, p. 121).

In the future, OAE may become a more accepted method of education, as it continues to make gains into mainstream education. Roberts says that despite historical and modern obstacles against the implementation of experiential approaches in education, these approaches have nevertheless continued to be "a significant if marginalized part of the educational landscape." He observes that "experiential programming and curricula have expanded significantly in recent years"—especially because educators are searching for new ways to help students who "do not experience success in more traditional educational environments" (Roberts, 2005, p.13).

Roots in Psychology

Moote and Wodarski compiled several other theoretical foundations that have been used in the field of outdoor adventure education programs, although these theories are borrowed from psychology and are mostly used as a foundation in developing intervention methods for "at-risk" adolescent programs, and such theories do not provide a general pedagogical foundation for outdoor adventure as a method of learning. However, these psychological theories do at least provide theoretical support to outdoor adventure programs; these theories include cognitive, behavioral, and affective (particularly gestalt) perspectives, and their relation to adventure-based programs (Moote & Wodarski, 1997, p. 38).

The cognitive perspective proposes that "thinking shapes behavior" and that emotions are strongly linked to thinking, and so it is thus possible to change a person's feelings by changing a person's dysfunctional thinking. The cognitive theory connects to adventure education since the goal of some adventure activities is to transform self-defeating thoughts of "I can't" to self-confident thoughts of "I can." Moote and Wodarski also note the similarity between adventure-based approaches of Rational-Emotive Therapy (RET) to the cognitive psychology theory. They point out that outdoor adventure goals such as "confronting fears, taking risks, surpassing previous limits, and accepting personal responsibility" are all examples of a "similar approach" to that of cognitive theory methods (Moote & Wodarski, 1997, p. 39).

Behavioral theory proposes that empirical research should be used to inform practice decisions and that observable behaviors in "real-life" settings are the focus of treatments. In a behavioralist view, the adventure group has the potential for behavior reinforcement in many forms—such as "peer pressure and point systems"—and the group process is considered the "change agent." Moote and Wodarski note that "many adventure programs stress the need for the development of specific, behavioral goals as an inherent part of the adventure process," which demonstrates behavioral theory methods (1997, p. 41)

The affective theoretical perspective is also connected to adventure-based activities. Gestalt theory (a branch of affective theory) argues that an organism cannot be separated from its environment, which understandably seems identical to behaviorism, but gestalt theory does not propose that human behavior consists of various responses to various stimuli; rather, gestalt theory emphasizes a "whole" greater than a sum of parts. Gestaltists view behavior as a "whole response to a whole behavior," and gestalt theory emphasizes a "here-and-now" orientation, as do some outdoor adventure programs. Also, there is a “similarity in that both adventure counseling and gestalt therapy often occur in groups and require a high degree of therapist improvisation" (Moote & Wodarski, 1997, p. 41).

Accreditation

Roberts points out that the AEE (and all other organizing bodies for OAE) are new, meaning that outdoor adventure education is yet evolving (2005, p.13). Steven Guthrie concludes that adventure programming (including academic and college training programs) is in its childhood, and the field of OAE has "a very small body of literature specific to the profession, relatively little on-going research, and we are not generally valued, recognized or supported by the public" (2002, p. 22).

As a nascent profession, adventure education jobs are relatively low paying. Guthrie follows the logical consequences that form a Catch-22 within the field: low pay in turn means "there is little impetus to join professional associations, or to attain costly professional training"; Guthrie also says that most entry-level practitioners "have neither the training, time, nor inclination to conduct research to enrich the profession" and that this in turn makes many within the field unaware of and not sharing in "the values, norms, or symbols of the 'profession'" (2002, p. 23). Under such circumstances, OAE accreditation programs are developing slowly, and the field is at present neither generally considered a profession nor highly regarded—which also relates to Breunig's argument that experiential education is "experience rich but theory poor."

It seems likely that accreditation will increasingly become an important topic within the field of adventure education, and programs will begin to become more standardized across the field. Guthrie remarks that the "AEE accreditation program accredits standards of practice, but does not set curricular standards," and he suggests that OAE practitioners start working on the development of basic "curricular components of a college degree in wilderness-based adventure education" and thereby promote "the value of a quality AE [Adventure Education] degree as an important prerequisite for the profession" (Guthrie, 2002, p. 27).

Nevertheless, the field has been making inroads toward becoming a more mature profession. The results of a 2002 study conducted by Jacquie Medina show that there was a significant increase in the number of academic degrees earned in this area over the preceding forty years, and she notes that more than 25 percent of those degrees were earned in the three years prior to her study. Medina says that the data from her study is consistent with the increasing number of academic degree programs for outdoor leadership preparation. She concludes that "to determine the viability and application of an academic degree, further studies are recommended that examine the employment path and training experiences of outdoor leaders possessing an academic degree" (Medina, 2002, p. 39).

Program Models and Studies

OAE practitioners use various program models, though there may yet be an unclear or mixed usage of the term "program model" in the nomenclature of OAE; the most popular model in outdoor education is called an "adventure-based model," but other models have been developed using myriad mixed criteria such as the specific group of participants (i.e., whether the participants are "at-risk" youth, individuals with mental illness, corporate managers, or ecology students, etc.), the particular objectives of a program, the theoretical underpinnings of those who design the program models, the duration of the program, the institution's or organization's particular principles, doctrines, and values, etc.

OAE programs that are adventure-based models are usually set in remote outdoor settings. Backpacking, biking, camping, canoeing, caving, hiking, orienteering, rock climbing, repelling, community service projects, and individual and group problem-solving activities are often part of adventure-based programs. However, there is an important difference between simply participating in adventure activities as a recreational endeavor and doing so within an adventure-based program model that has specific objectives. In an adventure-based program model (also called an "Adventure-Based Challenge" program, or an "ABC" program), activities are conducted for the purpose of creating personal changes within the individual participating (Herbert, 1996, p. 4). Some of the basic features of an adventure-based program are as follows:

• Goal Setting: In the adventure-based model, specific goals for each participant are set before beginning the program.

• Trust Building: Trust building becomes a critical element in adventure-based counseling because relationships are built upon a basic framework of trust.

• Challenge / Stress: The fact that adventure activities occur in environments that are not day-to-day experiences, usually some stress arises, and this is used to advantage.

• Problem Solving: Adventure-based programs involve challenges where participants must rely on one another to succeed. Each activity provides concrete problems that have a clear beginning and ending. Although problems may be solved in a number of ways, all members contribute to solving and completing the task.

• Fun: Adventure-based programs provide many exercises and challenges that are fun. Behind the philosophy of the adventure-based model is the philosophy that learning is easiest if it is also fun.

• Peak Experience: The peak experience provides a culmination to the program. The purpose of the peak experience is to provide an opportunity to apply all of the learning in the program to one intensive challenge (Herbert, 1996, p. 4–6).

Researchers have begun doing various studies to examine the proper use and efficacy of program models, but because OAE is yet a young field of knowledge and practice, much of the research is still uncertain and controversial—often due to the research methods and the limited scale of many of the studies and experiments.

For example, a study by Haras et al. is quite typical of the methodology of studies and experiments conducted in OAE. This particular study first gives a lengthy review of previous studies over the previous two decades and clearly establishes historical precedence for the research methods it uses. A review of these studies—as well as examining the new study—reveals the scientific methodology used in most OAE studies to date. The researchers examined a program model that used a "benefits-based approach" in two specifically designed ropes courses; Haras used "experience sampling and means-end analysis" methodology to compare two ropes courses: one course based on a "Challenge by Choice (CbC)" design and a second ropes course based on an "Inviting Optimum Participation (I-OPt)" design (Haras et al., 2006, p. 343). There were 360 participants in the experiment, and the study used an "experience sampling method (ESM)" that enabled researchers to study the subjective experiences of the participants—all of whom completed an "Experience Sampling Form (ESF)" that was modified from an earlier study (p. 344). The study concludes that OAE practitioners can "structure the design and delivery of ropes course programs to provide specific benefits and facilitate participant experiences of meaningful involvement" (p. 358).

OAE Efficacy

The above study was quite thorough in its scientific method, but several writers in the field have expressed general concern over the research being done. Sheard and Golby note that claims of positive psychological effects from adventure education curriculum "rely largely on anecdotal evidence, because little empirical research has been conducted to examine their efficacy" (2006, p.189). The authors also write that, in studies attempting to evaluate efficacy using means beyond anecdotal evidence, "the analyses were rarely more than correlational," and they say that "a recent review of the OAE literature indicates that the current understanding of how OAE outcomes are achieved is based largely on theory rather than on empirical research" (Sheard & Golby, 2006, p.190).

Moote and Wodarski, who compiled and analyzed a list of studies dating from 1980 up to 1997, say that when examining these various studies that were conducted to demonstrate efficacy, problems became apparent that made drawing conclusions difficult. Nearly half of the studies they examined "did not appear to utilize a control group as part of their design," while other studies "may have utilized non-equivalent control groups" (Moote & Wodarski, 1997, p. 50).

They also noted that most of the studies used self-report as the primary method of data collection, which "raises the question of whether participants (particularly adolescents) will accurately report on issues which would indicate low self-concept" (Moote & Wodarski, 1997, p. 51). The authors also mention other problems such as the need to design studies with adequate sample size for participants, randomized control groups, behavioral outcome measures, and adequate follow-ups (pp. 52, 56, 60).

However, Moote and Wodarski think it worth noting that their review "did not discover any studies which found that participation in adventure programming was harmful to the participants' health or well-being." They then point out that traditional psychotherapeutic services cannot make this claim since some have had demonstrable negative effects (Moote & Wodarski, 1997, p. 59).

But the deeper problems yet to be resolved trace back to the origins of outdoor adventure education and the two roots from which this branch of education has grown. Glenda Hanna hits very close to this problem when she writes, "Over the last three decades, a dichotomy has occurred in outdoor education, splitting it into adventure education and environmental education." But perhaps her introduction describing this dichotomy (attributed in her article to Priest, 1986) is not quite exact, for there could not be a split in something that has never actually converged successfully. Hanna notes that "although both adventure and environmental education depend largely on the natural environment and are experiential in approach … adventure education typically uses real or apparent risk and uncertainty to create dissonance … environmental education, on the other hand, is structured to help students learn ecological concepts" (Hanna, p. 1). This is essentially the difference between the two OAE influences: 1) outdoor adventure and 2) experiential education.

Further studies will not cause these two original influences to merge into a completely harmonious field; rather, clear recognition of these two roots—along with clear ideas on how each can beneficially integrate and support the other—is perhaps the optimal way for OAE to proceed. Outdoor adventure education has proven successful for many purposes and for many diverse groups of participants. Herbert's conclusion—from his examination of adventure-based programs designed for people with disabilities—is no less valid for adventure education in general: adventure-based programming offers "an experience that results in a strong bond with others that can lead to empowerment so that changes in personal, social, and work aspects occur" (1996, p. 8).

Terms and Concepts

Adventure-Based Model: Also called an "Adventure-Based Challenge" program, or an "ABC" program; an outdoor education program with activities conducted for the purpose of creating personal changes within the individual participating.

Association for Experiential Education (AEE): A nonprofit, professional membership association dedicated to experiential education and the students, educators and practitioners who utilize its philosophy (www.aee.org).

At-Risk Youth: Defined by statute as a child under the age of 18 who meets at least one of the following three requirements: 1) the child is absent from home for at least 72 consecutive hours without parental consent, or 2) the child is beyond parental control such that his/her behavior endangers the health, safety, or welfare of the child or any other person, or 3) the child has a substance abuse problem for which there are no pending criminal charges relating to the substance abuse.

Challenge by Choice (CbC): The principle that adventure education participants are invited to participate voluntarily in each of the various activities and challenges of a program. A participant may choose to sit out an activity, and this right is to be respected by others in the group and instructors.

Experiential Education: A philosophy and methodology in which educators purposefully engage with learners in direct experience and focused reflection in order to increase knowledge, develop skills, and clarify values (www.aee.org).

Inviting Optimum Participation (I-OPt): Strives to create a challenge environment that provide all participants with numerous choices. The key feature of I-OPt programs is a single, inclusive activity design that provides all participants with multiple options and levels of challenge within the scope of an activity's central task (Haras, Bunting & Witt, 2006).

Outdoor Adventure Education (OAE): An experiential method of learning with the use of all senses. It takes place primarily, but not exclusively, through exposure to the natural environment. In outdoor education, the emphasis for the subject of learning is often placed on relationships concerning people and natural resources.

OAE Accreditation Programs: University programs offering accreditation specifically for the field of outdoor adventure education.

Outward Bound Program (OB): An international, non-profit, independent educational organization with schools in more than thirty countries around the world. Outward Bound programs aim to foster the personal growth and social skills of participants by using challenging expeditions in the outdoors (www.outwardbound.net).

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Scrutton, R., & Beames, S. (2015). Measuring the Unmeasurable: Upholding rigor in quantitative studies of personal and social development in outdoor adventure education. Journal of Experiential Education, 38(1), 8–25. Retrieved from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=100948151&site=ehost-live&scope=site

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Sibthorp, J., Furman, N., Paisley, K., Gookin, J., & Schumann, S. (2011). Mechanisms of learning transfer in adventure education: Qualitative results from the NOLS transfer survey. Journal of Experiential Education, 34, 109–126. Retrieved from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82880774&site=ehost-live

Storehouse, P. (2013). Character development and outdoor adventure education: Critique and hope. Pathways: The Ontario Journal of Outdoor Education, 25, 4–9. Retrieved from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88856008&site=ehost-live

Thorsteinsson, J. (2014). Care and adventure education: Adventure-based outdoor journeys provide suitable conditions for giving and receiving care. Pathways: The Ontario Journal of Outdoor Education, 26, 20–28. Retrieved from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=95278814

Timken, G. L., & McNamee, J. (2012). New perspectives for teaching physical education: Preservice teachers' reflections on outdoor and adventure education. Journal of Teaching in Physical Education, 31, 21–38. Retrieved from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=71796620

Suggested Reading

Baker, M. (2006). Landfullness in adventure-based programming: promoting reconnection to the land. Journal of Experiential Education, 28, 267–276. Retrieved from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete.

Kelley, M., & Coursey, R. (1997). Therapeutic adventures outdoors: A demonstration of benefits for people with mental illness. Psychiatric Rehabilitation Journal, 20. Retrieved from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9709233882&site=ehost-live

Gass, M., & Priest, S. (2006). The effectiveness of metaphoric facilitation styles in corporate adventure training (CAT) programs. Journal of Experiential Education, 29, 78–94. Retrieved from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=21736225&site=ehost-live

Miles, B., & Wattchow, B. (2015). The mirror of the sea: Narrative identity, sea kayak adventuring and implications for outdoor adventure education. Australian Journal of Outdoor Education, 18(1), 16–26. Retrieved from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=110927034&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Potter, T. G., Socha, T. L., & O'Connell, T. S. (2012). Outdoor adventure education (OAE) in higher education: Characteristics of successful university degree programmes. Journal of Adventure Education & Outdoor Learning, 12, 99–119. Retrieved from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=74979175&site=ehost-live

Quay, J., & Seaman, J. (2013). John Dewey and education outdoors: Making sense of the 'educational situation' through more than a century of progressive reforms. Rotterdam: SensePublishers. Retrieved from EBSCO online database eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=578381&site=ehost-live

Wattchow, B. (2013). The socioecological educator: A 21st century renewal of physical, health, environment and outdoor education. Dordrecht: Springer. Retrieved from EBSCO online database eBook Academic Collection (EBSCOhost). http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=nlebk&AN=637326&site=ehost-live