Pedagogical Content Knowledge

Pedagogical content knowledge is an educational theory formulated by Lee Shulman in the 1980s. Shulman changed the thinking about teacher knowledge by making the claim that teachers' subject knowledge and pedagogy were being treated as separate entities and should be joined in the approach to teacher education. The article traces the history of teacher education, elaborating on Shulman's theory. Also covered are success stories and evidence that support pedagogical content knowledge as well as critics of the theory.

Keywords Epistemology; Pedagogical Content Knowledge (PCK); Pedagogical Knowledge; Pre-Service Teachers; Problem-Based Learning; Professional Development; Subject Content Knowledge; Teacher Cognition

Overview

The History of Research on Teacher Knowledge

Studies on teachers' knowledge can be traced back to the 1970s when researchers of information processing focused their studies on teacher planning and decision-making processes (Huang & Ariogul, 2006). The studies also compared the different processes of thinking between experienced teachers and student teachers (Huang & Ariogul, 2006).

In the late 1970s, researchers started to examine the thought processes that teachers engaged in as they planned and delivered their lessons. This research was referred to as teacher cognition (Huang & Ariogul, 2006).

In the 1980s researchers started to realize that teaching was more complex than it was once believed to be. Studies demonstrated that prior experience, practical knowledge, values, and the work environment were influential in shaping a teacher's teaching (Huang & Ariogul, 2006).

What is Pedagogical Content Knowledge?

The basis of the epistemology of pedagogical content knowledge comes from the understanding that educating is a complicated occupation that requires knowledge of many subject areas; a cognitive skill that must be developed. Historically, teacher education has revolved around what the teacher’s own specialty is. Now, however, teacher education philosophy has changed from single subjects to pedagogy, emphasizing universal classroom practices independent of subject matter (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). This shift in educational theory has led to a decrease in teacher content knowledge (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

Lee S. Shulman is the President of The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, and former Professor of Education at Stanford University and Professor of Educational Psychology and Medical Education at Michigan State University. He is also a past president of the American Educational Research Association (AERA) and a former president of the National Academy of Education (Falk, 2006). Shulman's research and writings include a focus on the study of teacher education; teacher assessment; the psychology of instruction in science, mathematics, and medicine; and the logic of educational research (Falk, 2006).

In the 1980s, Shulman changed the thought about teacher knowledge by presenting the theory of pedagogical content knowledge (PCK). PCK was originally conceptualized by Shulman in 1986 and can be described as a teacher's interpretations and alterations of subject matter knowledge for the purpose of helping student learning be more productive and effective (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). He claimed that educators' subject knowledge and pedagogy were perceived as separate entities (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). Some teacher education programs focused on either subject matter or pedagogy (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). PCK blends content and pedagogy in teacher education. It attempts to create an understanding of how specific facets of subject matter are arranged and presented for education (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

Pedagogical content knowledge is an essential component in understanding and assessing 'quality teaching' (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). Shulman claimed “that having knowledge of subject matter and general pedagogical strategies, though necessary, was not sufficient for creating good teachers” (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1018). For educators “to be successful they need to address both content and pedagogy simultaneously” (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1018). PCK focuses on how best to transform content for teaching. Shulman “suggests that in order to teach a subject, a teacher not only requires an understanding of subject matter but also an understanding of learners: their abilities, interests and learning styles” (Rahman & Scaife, 2005, ¶ 1). He even argues against the indiscriminate doctorate programs that exist for people studying education research and people studying to be education professors (Falk, 2006). He believes in the creation of a separate doctorate programs for education students who plan to be professors in teacher preparation programs (Falk, 2006). An appreciation of different teaching strategies classroom activities is also necessary (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). He maintained that educational theory should focus equally on content knowledge and ways representing the information to make it accessible and comprehensible to the learner (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

Further Insights

Shulman and his “colleagues felt that teaching and teacher education had become too far removed from subject matter and claimed that a correlation occurs between subject content and pedagogy” (Lederman, Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007, p. 6). Specifically, he argued that the knowledge and skills needed for the proper teaching of one subject, such as English, are different than those needed to teach science, or social studies (Lederman, Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007). He claims that in teacher education, a teacher's first impulse is to complain about test results, rather than admit kids not only need teachers who have all the right values, but also understand their subject matter well enough to teach to kids (Falk, 2006).

Elements of PCK

PCK is a combination of the knowledge that informs the way in which teachers present their:

• Knowledge about subject matter,

• General pedagogical knowledge,

• Knowledge of learners and self, and

• Knowledge of curriculum and context (Rahman & Scaife, 2005).

Subject content knowledge includes substantive knowledge of the discipline a teacher will teach as well as beliefs about the subject matter (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). Pedagogical Knowledge refers to knowledge about teaching strategies, approaches, methods and techniques. Knowledge of Learners and Self deals with the awareness that teachers have of their students' prior knowledge, learning styles, and attitudes in relation to school (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). It also concerns a teachers' consciousness of their own educational styles and approaches. The final component of PCK is Knowledge of Curriculum and Context (KCC), which includes an awareness of school protocols and changes in course curricula and national requirements (Rahman & Scaife, 2005).

There are eight attributes of PCK:

• Content

• Environment

• Pedagogy

• Assessment

• Curriculum

• Socio-culturalism

• Nature of subject

• Classroom management

These attributes of PCK are not arranged in a hierarchical manner because they are inter-related (Veal & MaKinster, 1999). The development of one can influence the others. For example, the knowledge of how to make a good assessment and when to give it to students may require a combination of attributes such as content, pedagogy and curruculum (Veal & MaKinster, 1999). The development of PCK requires teachers to synthesize different types of knowledge.

PCK in action is a complex blend of what a teacher knows, what a teacher does and why (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). In addition, the variety of ways that a teacher can develop the attributes of PCK suggests that there is more than one way to pass on PCK to a teacher (Veal & MaKinster, 1999). A teacher's PCK is personally constructed by each individual teacher (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). Students who enroll in teacher education programs are likely to have diverse backgrounds in terms of educational experience, cultural background, maturity and skills (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). They may have different learning styles and learning strategies and these factors will influence their learning and development as teachers (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). It is important that teacher education programs pay attention to the diverse needs of potential teachers.

PCK in Teacher Education Programs

Traditional teacher education programs tend to be fairly generic and independent of subject matter (Lederman, Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007). Most programs are given by departments of instruction, and pre-service teachers complete few content specific courses. Alternative certification programs are also generic. “The research on PCK should be telling us that teacher education should be subject-matter specific. Courses or experiences leading to the certification of new science teachers should be specific to science teaching and learning, rather than just science or just teaching” (Lederman, Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007, p. 7). Learning how to teach must take place through meaningful experiences rather than a general, often abstract context.

Subject-specific teacher education programs are most likely to get cut because of lack of finances (Lederman, Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007). It is more financially feasible to combine education programs rather than to specialize, however specialization is exactly what teachers need according to the epistemology of PCK (Lederman, Lederman & Abd-El-Khalick, 2007).

PCK in Lifelong Learning

Nevertheless, the eight PCK attributes support the idea of a teacher as a life long learner (Veal & MaKinster, 1999). Pedagogical content knowledge is developed along a continuum that continues once pre-service teachers enter the workforce. Individuals possess varying degrees of PCK, but they continue to improve each of the attributes throughout their career (Veal & MaKinster, 1999). Researchers have described how pedagogical content knowledge develops among novices and that experienced teachers know their subject matter differently than beginning teachers (Major & Palmer, 2006). Research also shows that pedagogical content knowledge develops when teachers study, teach, reflect, collaborate with other teachers, examine students and their work, and share their observations (Major & Palmer, 2006). A teacher's knowledge will expand over time due to a combination of teaching, professional development, and other learning experiences (Veal & MaKinster, 1999).

Studies on Pedagogical Content Knowledge

One research study followed and recorded two years of a sixth-grade teacher's development of pedagogical content knowledge (Seymour, 2006). To capture the dynamic nature of PCK this study noted an "inter-animation between two Discourses" (Seymour, 2006). One discourse refers to the ways in which students talk and behave during the lesson; and the second discourse refers to teacher-guided dialogue as well as strategies intended to alter students' thinking about the subject (Seymour, 2006). The study provided detailed evidence that teachers develop PCK from the experience of teaching (Seymour, 2006). The study showed that student ideas can cause teachers to reevaluate their teaching methods (Seymour, 2006). Teachers who acknowledge that students' perception of content will be different than their own are more likely to succeed at helping students make the best sense of a new or difficult concept (Seymour, 2006). The resulting dialogue is then increasingly inter-animated and the PCK approach is a success.

An expansive study conducted in the field of higher education backed up theories on pedagogical content knowledge explored in K-12 education. Specifically, to answer the primary research question of how faculty knowledge changed as a result of a specific teaching intervention, a group of faculty across diverse disciplines participated in a deliberate campus effort to transform teaching (Major & Palmer, 2006). Shulman's work on pedagogical content knowledge served as a framework for their exploration (Major & Palmer, 2006). This study took place at a private university in the southeastern United States. The university has an enrollment of approximately 4500 and a diverse array of departments and majors (Major & Palmer, 2006). At the time of the study, the university had completed a major curriculum revision aimed at developing students' critical thinking and problem-solving skills. The 3-year study was conducted through a grant beginning in the 1998-1999 academic year, that involved integrating problem-based learning (PBL) across the undergraduate curriculum (Major & Palmer, 2006).

The data demonstrated how these faculty members developed pedagogical content knowledge as they set out to change their courses to use the PBL pedagogy (Major & Palmer, 2006). The results showed that pedagogical content knowledge was transformed positively amongst the faculty during the study (Major & Palmer, 2006). Before the study, faculty noted that their decisions about how to teach a particular subject were often influenced by how they had been taught, usually a traditional lecture model (Major & Palmer, 2006).

One of the primary changes resulting from this process was the participants' heightened awareness of as teachers (Major & Palmer, 2006). They even adjusted their roles in the classroom, considering themselves more as facilitators than instructors (Major & Palmer, 2006). As they began to focus more on the students, they began to see more potential. Their experiences had changed faculty members' understanding of pedagogy; it became something worthy of study that should be closely linked with the discipline, student learning, as well as the assessment of that learning (Major & Palmer, 2006).

Prior research on pedagogical content knowledge shows that it has “several components including knowledge and beliefs about the purposes of teaching, knowledge of students' conceptions and misconceptions of a topic, curricular knowledge, and instructional strategies” (Major & Palmer, 2006, p. 641). The results of this study concur with these earlier studies and prove that even in higher education the paradigm is shifting from a focus on teaching to a focus on learning (Major & Palmer, 2006).

Another study focused on nine beginning teachers of foreign language and how pedagogical content knowledge was initially demonstrated compared to how it changed over the course of two years (Watzke, 2007). Four categories were examined: “prior knowledge that frames instructional decisions, attitudes toward teacher control in the classroom, instructional goals for daily lessons, and considerations for responding to student affect” (Watzke, 2007, p. 63).

The results “support the idea that approaches to instruction emerge through a process of teaching, conflict, and reflection specific to the classroom context. Similar research findings in other subject disciplines prove that the instructional practices of many beginning teachers are outdated and may be detrimental to the future success of new teachers. Professional development of beginning teachers must support the ideas embraced in pedagogical content knowledge in order to ensure that these outdated practices do not become lasting habits” (Watzke, 2007, p. 63).

Viewpoints

Pedagogical content knowledge is an epistemology that certainly has its critics. One complaint is that Shulman's descriptions include too many categories that lack consistency (Mishra & Koehler, 2006).

Zongyi Deng (2007) “questions the basic assumptions of pedagogical content knowledge and the concept of transforming the subject matter. He argues that the transformation of the subject matter is not just a pedagogical task” as Shulman claims (Deng, 2007, ¶ 1). It also affects the curriculum in terms of potentially altering a course of study. Deng believes that what comprises subject matter is an “essential issue of curriculum research and inquiry” and Shulman does not explore that issue in his theories (Deng, 2007).

A study in 2005 found that the overall quality of PCK as an approach to teacher education was positive but certain elements needed to be addressed (Rahman & Scaife, 2005). Pre-service teachers were only periodically aware of their potential or limitations, but overall further interaction was deemed necessary. Promoting thinking skills, application of indirect teaching strategies and experiential learning were some areas that were overlooked in the study (Rahman & Scaife, 2005).

Other critics disagree with the linear aspect of PCK's eight attributes and insist that a hierarchy is necessary. Some experts claim that content knowledge is the most important attribute to Pedagogical Content Knowledge while others believe that knowledge of students is of key importance (Veal & MaKinster, 1999).

Proponents of PCK base their argument on Shulman’s belief that teaching should blend content and pedagogy in order to represent information to the diverse interests and abilities of learners (Mishra & Koehler, 2006). “Since its introduction, PCK has become a popular and well-used notion. For instance, in the area of science education, scholars and professional organizations such as the National Science Teachers Association and National Council for the Accreditation of Teacher Education” have endorsed PCK as an effective approach to teacher preparation and professional development (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1022). It is valued as a concept that integrates traditional approaches to pedagogy.

Teaching necessarily integrates the scholarship of discovery, integration, and application (Major & Palmer, 2006). Faculty must be responsible (and taught to be responsible) for monitoring the development of their knowledge of and thinking about teaching (Major & Palmer, 2006). Effective teachers understand the ins and outs of a discipline as well as the practices that support student involvement in the classroom. Creating an ideal classroom environment that promotes learning is a difficult task because classrooms are complicated environments (Seymour & Lehrer, 2006). Teachers must juggle an assortment of factors and variables on any given day. Like any truly meaningful learning, faculty learning of pedagogical content knowledge begins by connecting to what the learner already knows, and modifying information as the learner processes and responds to information (Major & Palmer, 2006). Balancing the delivery of content, discipline and monitoring student interpretations of information rests on the development of a comprehensive form of knowledge in action (Seymour & Lehrer, 2006).

Terms & Concepts

Epistemology: The study of the nature of knowledge and learning.

Pedagogical Content Knowledge: The basis of the epistemology of pedagogical content knowledge comes from the “understanding that teaching is a complicated activity that requires many kinds of knowledge” (Mishra & Koehler, 2006, p. 1020). PCK blends content knowledge and pedagogy in teacher education.

Pedagogical Knowledge: This term refers to what teachers know about teaching strategies and techniques.

Pre-serviceTeacher: A pre-service teacher is a person who is in training to become a teacher and will complete a period of guided, supervised teaching.

Problem Based Learning (PBL): PBL is an approach to learning in which complex problems serve as the catalyst for learning. Students work in teams to try to identify the nature of the problem and the resources they will need to solve the problem (Major & Palmer, 2006).

Professional Development: Professional development applies to training and development necessary for maintaining and improving job related skills.

Subject content knowledge: This term refers to what teachers know about the discipline they teach.

Teacher Cognition: Teacher cognition refers to the thought processes that teachers engage in as they plan and carry out their lessons.

Bibliography

Deng, Z. (2007). Transforming the subject matter: Examining the intellectual roots of pedagogical content knowledge. Curriculum Inquiry, 37 , 279-295. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=25802318&site=ehost-live

Falk, B. (2006). A conversation with Lee Shulman-Signature pedagogies for teacher education: defining our practices and rethinking our preparation. New Educator, 2 , 73-82. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete.http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19762315&site=ehost-live

Huang, Y., & Ariogul, S. (2006). Metaphors and experiencing teaching. Curriculum & Teaching Dialogue, 8 (1/2), 225-238. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23965554&site=ehost-live

Lannin, J., Webb, M., Chval, K., Arbaugh, F., Hicks, S., Taylor, C., & Bruton, R. (2013). The development of beginning mathematics teacher pedagogical content knowledge. Journal of Mathematics Teacher Education, 16, 403-426. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91843750&site=ehost-live

Lederman, N., Lederman, J., & Abd-El-Khalick, F. (2007). Alternative certification: An alternative perspective. NSTA Reports! 18 . 6-7. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24655312&site=ehost-live

Maher, N., & Muir, T. (2013). "I know you have to put down a zero, but i'm not sure why": Exploring the link between pre-service teachers' content and pedagogical content knowledge. Mathematics Teacher Education & Development, 15, 72-87. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91920222&site=ehost-live

Major, C., & Palmer, B. (2006). Reshaping teaching and learning: The transformation of faculty pedagogical content knowledge. Higher Education, 51 , 619-647. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20434155&site=ehost-live

http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20434155&site=ehost-live

Mishra P., & Koehler, M. (2006). Technological pedagogical content knowledge: A framework for teacher knowledge. Teachers College Record, 108 , 1017-1054. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=20928541&site=ehost-live

Rahman, F., & Scaife, J. (2005/2006). Assessing pre service teachers' pedagogical content knowledge using a 'Bricolage' approach. International Journal of Learning, 12 , 81-91. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete.http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24964257&site=ehost-live

Seymour, J. (2006). How does pedagogical content knowledge emerge from classroom teaching? Conference Papers --Psychology of Mathematics & Education of North America, Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=26974316&site=ehost-live

Shih-Hsiung, L. (2013). Exploring the instructional strategies of elementary school teachers when developing technological, pedagogical, and content knowledge via a collaborative professional development program. International Education Studies, 6, 58-68. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Veal, W. & MaKinster, J. (1999). Pedagogical content knowledge taxonomies. The Electronic Journal of Science Education, 3. Retrieved December 5, 2007, from http://wolfweb.unr.edu/homepage/crowther/ejse/vealmak.html

Watzke, J. (2007). Foreign language pedagogical knowledge: toward a developmental theory of beginning teacher practices. Modern Language Journal, 91, 63-82. Retrieved December 2, 2007, from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23972355&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Shulman, L. S. (1986). Those who understand: Knowledge growth in teaching. Educational Researcher, 15, 4-14.

Shulman, L. S. (1987). Knowledge and teaching: Foundations of the new reform. Harvard Educational Review, 57, 1-22.