Pre - Practicum and Practicum

Abstract

This article presents an overview of pre-practicums and practicums related to preservice teacher preparation. Key points include the role they play in initial teacher education, how they are designed, and the goals they are intended to accomplish. The article also discusses the key design component of both pre-practicums and practicums and the authentic contexts they provide. It stresses that one of the primary purposes is to afford teacher candidates supervised and structured opportunities to work in learning environments, schools, and child care centers relevant to the teaching certifications they are seeking

Overview

The Purpose. As the root word common to the terms pre-practicum and practicum suggests, their purpose is to be practical. In the context of P–12 preservice teacher preparation programs, pre-practicums and practicums are typically designed to provide teacher candidates with opportunities to apply the knowledge, skills, and dispositions that they acquire throughout their preparation programs. In 2001, Munby, Russell, and Martin concluded that research results overwhelmingly indicate that teaching knowledge is acquired and developed by actually teaching.

Smith and Lev-Ari (2005) emphasize that knowledge of teaching and knowledge about teaching are two different things. They point out that knowledge about teaching can be learned through didactic courses that focus on theory, but knowledge of teaching only can be learned by actively engaging in teaching.

In addition to serving as a bridge between theory and practice, the practicum serves as the context in which teacher candidates develop their personal teaching competence. "The more tacit components of knowledge of teaching, such as handling spontaneous problems, decision making, developing a professional vision, classroom management, are best acquired during the practicum when student teachers are engaged in active learning, learning by doing" (Smith & Lev-Ari, 2005, p. 298).

Alternately called novice teaching, field experiences, and teacher assisting, teacher candidates participate in pre-practicums at various points throughout their programs of study. Often these experiences are designed to be completed in conjunction with specific courses, such as concurrent enrollment in a teaching of reading course and a literacy-focused field experience. Less frequently, they function as stand-alone courses that feature observation and/or practice opportunities in school settings.

Practicum typically takes place at the conclusion of a program of study. Known alternately as student teaching, internships, or practice teaching, they generally are structured to provide extensive and intensive opportunities for teacher candidates to apply their knowledge and skills and to demonstrate that they have met the appropriate program outcomes and professional standards. A key design component of both pre-practicums and practicums is the authentic contexts they provide. A primary purpose is to afford teacher candidates supervised and structured opportunities to work in learning environments, schools, and child care centers relevant to the teaching certifications they are seeking.

Some alternative initial teacher preparation programs do not require much by way of preservice clinical experiences. These programs are based upon recommendations reported by the U.S. Department of Education, which suggest that, when teacher candidates possess high degrees of verbal ability and a depth of content knowledge, education degrees and knowledge about how to teach do not have significant impacts on student achievement (Jensen & Kiley, 2005). However, Darling-Hammond (2003) suggests that teachers with inadequate initial preparation are more likely to leave the profession, as are teachers prepared through alternate preparation routes (Darling-Hammond & Sykes, 2003; Fowler, 2002; Raymond, Fletcher, & Luque, 2001).

A 2005 study conducted by Oh, Ankers, Llamas, and Tomyoy supports the crucial role that pedagogy has to play in initial teacher preparation. Results of their study reveal that new teachers who completed a student teaching experience reported significantly higher levels of job satisfaction than those who did not.

Applications - Key Design Variables

Standards. Although each state has its own teacher certification or licensure requirements, many states' beginning teacher standards are based on those developed by the Interstate New Teachers' Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC, 1992). Consequently, the INTASC Standards serve as the overarching goals of many initial teacher preparation programs and are reflected in the learner outcomes for the clinical experiences embedded in those programs. The main elements of the INTASC Standards are profiled here, accompanied by examples of ways in which interns and prepracticum participants may demonstrate their competency with regard to each standard.

Standard #1: Knowledge of Subject Matter.The teacher understands the central concepts, tools of inquiry, and structure of the discipline(s) he or she teaches and can create learning experiences that make these aspects of the subject matter meaningful for students.

An important outcome of initial teacher preparation programs is that teacher candidates are well-versed in the subject matter they intend to teach. Because different types of knowledge are learned in different ways, it is also critical for beginning teachers to know, understand, and apply instructional strategies that are appropriate for different learning outcomes. For example, although teacher-centered presentations may be appropriate for providing learners with content knowledge specific to the Amazon Rain Forest, presentations in and of themselves typically are not the most efficient and effective means of helping learners acquire procedural knowledge, such as how to perform long division.

Sample Activities

• Develop instructional plans and units of study that focus on content and skills appropriate to the learners for whom they are designed.
• Demonstrate the ability to help learners make meaningful connections between what they know and the content and skills they are expected to learn.

Standard #2: Knowledge of Human Development & Learning.The teacher understands how children learn and develop and can provide learning opportunities that support their intellectual, social, and personal development.

As implied in the preceding section, teachers must know how to teach, as well as what to teach. Understanding the developmental needs of learners of different ages is a key component of planning and providing appropriate instruction. Beginning teachers must plan in ways that acknowledge that very young learners do not typically have the same fine motor skills, social experiences, or knowledge base as middle school learners or high school learners.

Sample Activities

• Design and implement instructional activities that are developmentally appropriate for learners.
• Apply knowledge of learning theories to plan and implement instruction that is responsive to the learners' developmental levels.
• Plan and implement instruction that acknowledges that learning is social and that language has an important role to play in learning.

Standard #3: Adapting Instruction for Individual Needs.The teacher understands how students differ in their approaches to learning and creates instructional opportunities that are adapted to diverse learners.

Understanding the developmental needs of learners of different abilities is another key component of planning and providing appropriate instruction. No two ten-year-olds possess exactly the same life experiences, strengths, and skill levels. Consequently, no two ten-year-olds possess exactly the same needs with regard to instructional strategies or the same preferences with regard to learning styles.

Sample Activities

• Create a learning community where learners and their contributions are valued and individual differences are respected.
• Develop & implement learning activities that are designed to operate at multiple levels in order to meet a variety of developmental & individual needs.

Standard #4: Multiple Instructional Strategies.The teacher understands and uses a variety of instructional strategies to encourage students' development of critical thinking, problem solving, and performance skills.

Because different types of knowledge are learned via different approaches and because different types of learners respond best to different learning styles and methods, teachers must acquire, possess, and apply a repertoire of instructional strategies. In addition, most students require multiple opportunities to learn a particular concept or skill. Consequently, if teachers develop the habit of over reliance on one or two instructional tools or strategies, they quickly run out of options when learners don't "get it" the first time or when a specific strategy does not resonate with a particular learner.

Sample Activities

• Provide multiple ways for learners to learn and multiple ways for them to show what they know and can do.
• Create and implement interdisciplinary learning experiences that offer opportunities for learners to integrate knowledge and skills across content areas and to use methods of inquiry from different subject areas.

Standard #5: Classroom Motivation and Management Skills.The teacher uses an understanding of individual and group motivation and behavior to create a learning environment that encourages positive social interactions, active engagement in learning, and self-motivation.

There is much more to creating a positive and productive learning environment than most people realize. Effective teachers understand the variables of organizational culture and acknowledge the responsibilities they have to serve as instructional leaders who set learners up for success. An important first step in doing so is knowing learners' needs and identifying variables they find motivating, such as opportunities to make some choices regarding their own learning (e.g., choosing between two different learning centers, deciding how they want to organize a unit project).

Sample Activities

• Analyze the learning environment to inform decisions and make adjustments that will enhance social relationships, facilitate the development of a positive climate, encourage learner engagement, and support learner productivity.
• Create and communicate clear and consistent expectations for learner behavior and organization of the learning environment.

Standard #6: Communication Skills.The teacher uses knowledge of effective verbal, nonverbal, and media communication techniques to foster active inquiry, collaboration, and supportive interaction in the classroom.

Sometimes adults wonder aloud why children and adolescents aren't better communicators. At least a partial reason may be that they need more models of what effective communication looks like and sounds like. Teachers are in a position to serve as role models of effective communication. They also have the responsibility to introduce learners to a variety of communication styles and strategies and to facilitate the development of positive interpersonal relations within their classrooms.

Sample Activities

• Use a variety of media and communication tools (e.g., audiovisual aids, computers, Internet resources, assistive technology) to enrich the teaching/learning process.
• Model a variety of appropriate means of communication (e.g., non-verbal, written, oral, visual, technology-assisted) and design opportunities for learners to communicate in a variety of ways.

Standard #7: Instructional Planning Skills.The teacher plans instruction based on knowledge of subject matter, students, the community, and curriculum goals.

In addition to knowing their subject matter and their learners, teachers must be well acquainted with state and district curriculum goals, standards, and learning outcomes. They also must be familiar with the communities in which students live and the values they bring with them to school each day, which are natural outgrowths of their family contexts.

Sample Activities

• Engage in and value both short-term and long-term instructional planning.
• Develop instruction and learning activities that are aligned with established standards and curricula, as well as responsive to learner needs.
• Vary the teacher's role (e.g., facilitator, assessor, coach, guide, presenter, audience) and the instructional strategies used (e.g., direct instruction, concept teaching, presentation, problem-based learning, inquiry learning, creative problem solving, cooperative learning) to fit the learners, the instructional purpose, and the subject matter.

Standard #8: Assessment of Student Learning.The teacher understands and uses formal and informal assessment strategies to ensure the continuous intellectual, social, & physical development of the learner.

Assessment can serve several different purposes, such as determining what learners already know, diagnosing learning difficulties, and documenting what students have learned from a particular course or unit of study. Consequently, beginning teachers must be knowledgeable of and appropriately apply a variety of assessment tools (e.g., norm-referenced tests, criterion-referenced tests, teacher observation and anecdotal records, performance assessment, authentic assessment).

Sample Activities

• Begin by identifying learners' strengths and building on those, rather than identifying their deficits and weaknesses.
• Demonstrate understanding and appreciation of the different purposes of assessment by appropriately using pre-assessment, formative assessment, and summative assessment to guide the teaching/learning process.
• View and use assessment as a naturally occurring and authentic part of instruction.
• Use a variety of assessment strategies-including formal, informal, and alternative-to monitor, guide, and facilitate student learning.
• Document learner performance by maintaining accurate records.

Standard #9: Professional Commitment & Responsibility.The teacher is a reflective practitioner who continually evaluates the effects of his or her choices and actions on others (students, parents, and other professionals in the learning community) and who actively seeks out opportunities to grow professionally.

Being able to honestly reflect on and assess their own performance and instructional decisions is a critical skill for beginning teachers. Therefore, initial teacher preparation programs must provide multiple opportunities for preservice teachers to develop and apply skills of reflection and self-assessment. The key role of reflection on practice is highlighted later in this article.

Sample Activities

• Use self-assessment and contemplative reflection to guide professional growth and development.
• Create and implement personal development plans and take ownership of your own professional development.

Standard #10: Partnerships.The teacher fosters relationships with school colleagues, parents, and agencies in the larger community to support students' learning and well-being.

Throughout much of the school day teachers function independently from each other in the context of their own classrooms. However, in order to help every student learn, it is essential for teachers to work together with parents, social service agencies, speech therapists, physical therapists, occupational therapists, reading specialists, administrators, and other individuals who have important contributions to make to the teaching/learning process. Consequently, the variable of collaboration is highlighted in the next section of this article.

Sample Activities

• Appropriately communicate learner progress to students, parents, administrators, and other educators.
• Create and implement effective methods for communicating with parents and for involving them in their children's learning in positive ways.
• Identify, apply, and advocate for appropriate professional practices that are research-based.

Connections, Communication, & Collaboration. Well-designed teacher preparation programs create intentional and authentic connections between theory and practice. When pre-practicums and practicums, which typically occur in P–12 school settings, are not aligned with methods courses and content courses, which typically are taught in university settings, the result is a major disconnect between theory and practice-and practice without theory reduces teacher education to teacher training (Timperley, Rubie, Black, Stavert, & Taylor-Patel, 2000).

Effective communication and on-going collaboration among the school-based and university-based personnel involved in designing, implementing, and evaluating clinical experiences are critical to developing and maintaining meaningful connections between theory and practice. And without meaningful theory-practice connections, preservice field experiences fail to serve the intended purpose of providing opportunities for preservice teachers to apply the knowledge and skills they are acquiring within authentic and relevant P–12 learning contexts (Cooper & Page, 2000).

Collaboration is more than cooperation; it refers to two or more people working together in pursuit of a common goal (Jensen & Kiley, 2005). Well-designed field experiences build in multiple opportunities for collaboration between the preservice teacher, the P–12 cooperating teacher, and the university supervisor. In addition to three-way evaluation conferences, this collaboration includes jointly determining and clarifying the goals of the experience, as well as the roles of all three players involved in the experience.

Effective cooperating teachers and university supervisors serve as significant others for student teachers. As such, they are in the position to offer student teachers feedback and constructive criticism of their performance. Effective cooperating teachers and university supervisors also collaborate to create opportunities for student teachers to reflect on and assess their own performance (Smith & Lev-Ari, 2005).

Appropriate Length: Extensive Field Experiences. Another key ingredient of successful pre-practicums and practicums is sufficient length of the field experiences. For example, the results of a 2000 study suggest that a ten-hour field experience that preservice teachers completed in conjunction with a content area reading course simply was too brief to be meaningful (Rogers, 2000). Teachers who participated in a study conducted by Cooper and Page (2000) also identified the need to increase the time that preservice teachers spent in P–12 classrooms.

In existing initial teacher preparation programs, practicums, internships, and student teaching experiences vary a great deal in length. Some alternative route certification programs do not provide any internship prior to placing teachers in their own classrooms (Oh, Ankers, Llamas, & Tomyoy, 2005), while other alternative programs provide abbreviated student teaching experiences (e.g., five weeks). Traditional teacher education programs typically include more extensive internships, which may range from eight weeks to an entire semester of 15 or 16 weeks. Most programs require teacher candidates to student teach in every area in which they are seeking certification, so some candidates have more than one student teaching experience. For example, candidates seeking K–12 art certification often student teach at the elementary level as well as at the secondary level.

Appropriate Content: Intensive Field Experiences. The variable of practicum length relates to the notion of field experiences being extensive, whereas the content and expectations of the practicum relate to the notion of field experiences being intensive. That is, do the field experiences provide appropriate challenge for preservice teachers and do they provide sufficient opportunities to apply the knowledge they are learning and to practice the skills they are developing? For example, if the purpose of a particular field experience is to provide a setting in which preservice teachers can apply the strategies they are learning in a science teaching methods course, then the preservice teachers must be in classrooms where science is taught at the time of day when science is scheduled. Although on its face that is a very basic observation, sometimes the logistics of matching college students' schedules with fifth graders' schedules can be daunting.

Organizational Support. Another variable critical to practicum success is organizational support. Quite simply, "…a positive and welcoming learning environment within the practicum context contributes to student teacher success during the practicum" (Turnbull, 2005, p. 207).

The results of a 2000 study suggest that practicums are the most stressful components of teacher preparation (Murray-Harvey, Slee, Lawson, Silins, Banfield, & Russel). Consequently, student teachers can benefit from emotional support during the practicum. Smith and Lev-Ari (2005) concluded that student teachers in their study perceived that their university supervisors and the feedback sessions they facilitated provided them with the most support.

Although student teachers often perceive university supervisors and school-based mentors (sometimes referred to as cooperating teachers) as offering them the strongest support, school principals can also play an important role in welcoming and encouraging preservice teachers. However, the results of a 2005 study conducted by Smith and Lev-Ari suggest that school principals were not perceived to be supportive of student teachers. Given all that principals are responsible for, they often do not view preservice teacher preparation as part of their contribution to the profession.

Reflection on Practice. Skamp & Mueller (2001) are among the researchers who identify reflection on practice as another key variable of field experience design. Structured reflection that is guided by both university and P–12 clinical supervisors needs to be an integrated and ongoing component of all facets of teacher preparation programs-including course-based work as well as clinical experiences. It is critical for student teachers to reflect on their own practice, as well as the practice of others, in ways that create explicit links between what they do and what research tells them about effective teaching (Timperley, Rubie, Black, Stavert, & Taylor-Patel, 2000).

Just as a mirror enables individuals to view and assess their appearance, "when used as a tool for self-analysis, contemplative reflection, or self-analysis, enables teachers to see and assess the attitudes, dispositions, knowledge base, and performances that together make up the whole picture of who they are and how effective they are as teachers. Reflection plays a particularly critical role in the teaching profession, because teachers operate fairly autonomously on a day-to-day basis, often without much interaction with or observation by other teachers or administrators" (Jensen & Kiley, 2005, p. 31).

Consequently, the theme of teachers as reflective practitioners often is woven throughout the fabric of teacher preparation programs. "Prospective teachers may first discover the concept of reflection in their introductory education courses and then continually 'rediscover' it throughout their course of study. They also learn to use the paradigm of reflection to help them develop and examine their teaching philosophies and to guide their field experiences as they begin to make connections between theory and practice" (Jensen & Kiley, 2005, p. 32).

Summary. This article is intended to provide an overview of the pre-practicums and practicums that are components of initial teacher preparation programs. It focused on the purpose field experiences are intended to serve and then identified and described several key design variables of effective field experiences. These include: standards; connections, communication, and collaboration; length; content; organizational support; and reflection.

Terms & Concepts

Certification: Official recognition by a state board or agency that an individual has met specific standards and requirements and is approved to teach; also known as licensure.

Clinical experiences: Internships, student teaching, and other P–12 school-based experiences that are designed to help prepare individuals to teach.

Collaboration: Two or more people or groups working together for a common purpose or shared goal.

Cooperating teacher: A P–12 school-based practitioner who mentors and guides a student teacher or practicum student.

Dispositions: A combination of the values and ethics that guide preservice and inservice teachers' behaviors and actions; for example, the belief that all students can learn or the belief that learning is a social process.

Field experiences: A range of field-based opportunities, such as tutoring, observation, and teacher assisting, designed to help prepare individuals to teach; typically field experiences occur in P–12 schools and child care centers; also known as pre-practicum.

Initial teacher preparation: College programs designed to prepare preservice teachers for their first teaching license or certification.

Internship: An extensive and intensive clinical experience designed to provide teacher candidates with opportunities to apply and practice the knowledge, skills, and dispositions they acquire through their teacher preparation coursework; also known as student teaching or practicum.

Interstate New Teachers' Assessment and Support Consortium (INTASC): A project sponsored by the Council of Chief State School Officers (CCSSO), which resulted in the design of performance-based standards for the certification/licensure of beginning teachers.

Licensure: Official recognition by a state board or agency that an individual has met specific standards and requirements and is approved to teach; also known as certification.

Mentoring: A professional relationship in which an experienced teacher serves as a role model and guide for a less experienced or novice teacher.

Practicum: An extensive and intensive clinical experience designed to provide teacher candidates with opportunities to apply and practice the knowledge, skills, and dispositions they acquire through their teacher preparation coursework; also known as student teaching or internship.

Pre-Practicum: A range of field-based opportunities, such as tutoring, observation, and teacher assisting, designed to help prepare individuals to teach; typically field experiences occur in P-12 schools and child care centers; also known as field experiences.

Pre-Service Teacher: An individual who is preparing to teach but has not yet entered the profession.

Reflection: Self-analysis of teaching performance and practice; examination of the dispositions, knowledge base, and performances that collectively comprise the whole of one's effectiveness as a teacher.

Student Teaching: An extensive and intensive clinical experience designed to provide teacher candidates with opportunities to apply and practice the knowledge, skills, and dispositions they acquire through their teacher preparation coursework; also known as student teaching or practicum.

University Supervisor: A university-based teacher educator who mentors and guides a student teacher or practicum student.

Bibliography

Cooper, A., & Page, F. (2000). Joint participation by P–12 schools and Georgia Southern University in preparing teachers. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 444 965. Retrieved Wednesday, May 02, 2007 from the ERIC database: http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/22/ab/6b.pdf

Darling-Hammond, L. (2003). Keeping good teachers: Why it matters, what leaders can do. Educational Leadership, 60 , 6–13.

Darling-Hammond, L., & Sykes, G. (2003). Wanted: A national teacher supply policy for education: The right way to meet the "highly qualified teacher" challenge. Education Policy Analysis Archives, 11 , 1–57.

Fowler, C. (2002). Fast track…slow going? Education Policy Clearinghouse Research Brief, 2 .

Interstate New Teacher Assessment and Support Consortium. (1992). Model standards for beginning teacher licensing and development: A resource for state dialogue. Washington, DC: Council of Chief State School Officers.

Jensen, R. A., & Kiley, T. J. (2005). Teaching, leading, and learning in preK–8 settings: Strategies for success (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Munby, H., Russell, T., & Martin, A. K. (2001). Teachers' knowledge and how it develops. In V. Richardson (Ed.), Handbook for research on teaching, 877–904. Washington, DC: American Educational Research Association.

Murray-Harvey, R., Slee, P. T., Lawson, M. J., Silins, H., Banfield, G., & Russel, A. (2000). Under stress: The concerns and coping strategies of teacher education students. European Journal of Teacher Education, 23 , 19–35.

Nair, P., & Ghanaguru, S. (2017). Owning the classroom: student teachers’ experiences and concerns during practicum. English Teacher, 46(3), 142–159. Retrieved 6 Mar. 2018, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=127755120&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Oh, D. M., Ankers, A. M., Llamas, J. M., & Tomyoy, C. (2005). Impact of pre-service student teaching experience on urban school teachers. Journal of Instructional Psychology, 32 , 82–98. Retrieved Wednesday, May 02, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16802916&site=ehost-live

Okhremtchouk, I. S., Newell, P. A., & Rosa, R. (2013). Assessing pre-service teachers prior to certification: Perspectives on the performance assessment for California teachers (PACT). Education Policy Analysis Archives, 21, 1–27. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89187382&site=ehost-live

Raymond, M., Fletcher, S., & Luque, J. (2001). Teach for America: An evaluation of teacher differences and student outcomes in Houston, Texas. Stanford, CA: Center for Research on Educational Outcomes, The Hoover Institution, Stanford University. Rogers, S. F. (2000, Nov.). Every practicum has a story: Designing an effective content area reading practicum for preservice teachers. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 453 523) Retrieved Wednesday, May 02, 2007 from the ERIC database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/25/e7/ce.pdf

Rees, C., Pardo, R., & Parker, J. (2013). Steps to opening scientific inquiry: Pre-service teachers' practicum experiences with a new support framework. Journal of Science Teacher Education, 24, 475–496. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=87583955&site=ehost-live

Skamp, K., & Mueller, A. (2001). A longitudinal study of the influences of primary and secondary school, university and practicum on student teachers' images of effective primary science practice. International Journal of Science Education, 23 , 227–245.

Smith, K., & Lev-Ari, L. (2005). The place of the practicum in pre-service teacher education: The voice of the students. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33 , 289–302. Retrieved Wednesday, May 02, 2007 from the EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. ‗HL0:AN:18711032::‗http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx? Direct=true&db=aph &AN=18711032 &site=ehost-live‗hl‗

Timperley, H., Rubie, C., Black, J., Stavert, M., & Taylor-Patel, C. (2000, April). What happens in the practicum: The contribution of school-based practitioners to teacher education. A paper presented at the American Educational Research Association Annual Meeting. New Orleans. Retrieved Wednesday, May 02, 2007 from the ERIC database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2/content_storage_01/0000000b/80/10/ea/51.pdf

Tuchman, E., & Isaacs, J. (2011). The influence of formal and informal formative pre-service experiences on teacher self-efficacy. Educational Psychology, 31, 413–433. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=60911352&site=ehost-live

Turnbull, M. (2005). Student teacher professional agency in the practicum. Asia-Pacific Journal of Teacher Education, 33 , 195–208. Retrieved Wednesday, May 02, 2007 from the ERIC database. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13598660500122116

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Suggested Reading

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Solving the dilemmas of teacher supply, demand, and quality. New York: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future.

Darling-Hammond, L. (2000). Teacher quality and student achievement: A review of state policy evidence. Educational Policy Analysis Archives, 8 .

Gordon, S. P., & Maxey, S. (2000). How to help beginning teachers succeed. (2nd ed.)

Gordon, S. P., & Maxey, S. (2000). How to help beginning teachers succeed. (2nd ed.)

Hotaman, D. D. (2017). The teacher candidates' views on essential teaching skills of practicum teachers. International Online Journal of Educational Sciences, 9(1), 91–100. doi:10.15345/iojes.2017.01.007. Retrieved 6 Mar. 2018, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=eue&AN=122199017&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Ingersoll, R.M., & Smith, T.M. (2003). The wrong solution to the teacher shortage. Educational Leadership, 60 , 30–33.

Jensen, R. A., & Kiley, T. J. (2005). Teaching, leading, and learning in preK-8 settings: Strategies for success (2nd ed.). Boston: Houghton Mifflin.