Problem-based Learning

The following article is a summary of problem-based learning, an instructional approach first developed in the field of medical education in the late 1970s. Concerned that traditional methods of instruction weren't adequately preparing doctors for their profession, two medical educators developed an alternative approach to teaching, now known as problem-based learning. Although problem-based learning takes many different forms, they often share core characteristics: instruction centered around a 'messy' problem; the utilization of methods that engage students, such as teamwork; and a focus on outcomes such as self-directed and lifelong learning. Within this structure, the role of students, the role of teachers, and the role of assessment are all redefined. Problem-based learning has been shown to improve student and teacher satisfaction, and lead to more self-directed learning, but research suggests student performance is, at best, equal to the performance of students taught in traditional classrooms.

Keywords Constructivism; Formative assessment; Peer assessment; Problem-centered instruction; Self-directed learning; Summative assessment; Teamwork; Traditional teaching methods; Tutor

Overview

In the early 1980s, medical educators became concerned that traditional curricula and teaching methods weren't adequately preparing doctors for their profession. The separation of the study of the biological sciences - typically the first two years of medical school - from clinical practice - typically the last two years of medical school - seemed artificial and counterproductive. Many believed doctors graduated from medical school lacking good problem-solving skills, and without the motivation to continue learning on their own. As a result, Barrows and Tamblyn (1980), two professors at McMaster Medical School in Canada, developed an alternative approach to teaching medicine. This alternative approach - called problem-based learning - was quickly adopted by other medical universities, and then spread to the teaching of other professions as well. Problem-based learning is now practiced in postsecondary and secondary schools throughout the United States and around the world.

Although developed in a specific context and for a specific purpose, problem-based learning cannot be narrowly defined. Proponents of the approach stress that "problem-based learning is not to be seen as a particular way or method of learning; rather it is to be seen as learning that has a number of differing forms" (Savin-Baden & Major, 2004, p. 4). Others have argued that it should be thought of as a general educational strategy or philosophy, as opposed to a teaching method or approach. Even Howard Barrows, one of the founders of problem-based learning, argues that it must "be considered a genus from which there are many species and subspecies" (cited in Savin-Baden & Major, 2004, p. 5).

Nevertheless, problem-based learning methods share several core criteria. Walton and Matthews (1989), for example, define problem-based learning according to three characteristics, none of which, they argue, compromises the variety and complexity of the approach (as cited in Savin-Baden & Major, 2004). The three criteria are: the organization of the curriculum around a problem as opposed to a content area; the utilization of methods that engage students, such as small groups, tutorial instruction, and active learning; and a focus on outcomes such as critical thinking and self-directed learning. Boud (1985) adds several other identifying characteristics - although these may or may not be present in all forms of problem-based learning - such as interdisciplinary study, an emphasis on peer and self-assessment as opposed to teacher-assessment, and a focus on process as opposed to knowledge acquisition.

Although the lack of a single, fixed, agreed-upon definition of problem-based learning makes it difficult to describe exactly what problem-based learning is, there is less ambiguity in defining what it is not. In short, problem-based learning developed in opposition to traditional teaching methods, with some arguing that the shift from one to the other is nothing less than a 'paradigm shift' (Uden & Beaumont, 2006). Traditional methods are typically lecture-based, and teachers are viewed as experts transmitting knowledge to others. Accordingly, students are viewed as passive recipients of knowledge, the measure of their learning the ability to recall the information imparted to them at a later point in time. As Uden and Beaumont (2006) argue, "While this may have worked in the past, this method of learning is no longer adequate…" in today's world (p. 27).

While problem-based learning is a relatively recent development, especially when compared to traditional methods of teaching, it nonetheless has strong historical roots in a variety of philosophical perspectives. Savin-Baden and Major (2004) outline connections to at least eight distinct philosophies - sometimes competing philosophies - including naturalism, metaphysics, rationalism, empiricism, phenomenology, positivism, existentialism, and postmodernism. From naturalists, for example, problem-based learning draws upon the notion of developing knowledge through critical questioning. With existentialists such as Kierkegaard and Nietzsche, problem-based learning advocates share the idea that education should empower students to become free and authentic selves. "Nietzsche believed no one could educate anyone else, that education must necessarily be self-education" (Savin-Baden & Major, 2004, p. 15). And postmodernists emphasize fragmentation and ambiguity - the rejection of objective truths and grand narratives - in much the same way problem-based learning rejects the idea of one 'right' solution to any problem.

In addition to its philosophical roots, problem-based learning has a foundation in modern theories of learning as well. It is more closely aligned with some theories than others - particularly those with cognitive or constructivist leanings - but Savin-Baden and Major (2004) argue it shares basic principles with even the earliest and simplest behavioral theories of learning. Behaviorists Thorndike and Hull, for example, emphasized the importance of feedback, goal-setting, and motivation, all of which manifest themselves in various forms of problem-based learning. Cognitive theorists emphasize the importance of pre-existing knowledge and cognitive structures in the learning process; similarly, the success of problem-based learning depends, in part, on what students 'bring' to the problem. Humanists view learning as a personal process that involves the whole person - intellectual, emotional, and spiritual - the end result of which is self-actualization. Problem-based learning, too, is designed to give students the freedom to explore and maximize their true potential.

While problem-based learning may draw upon the wisdom of many different learning theories, some argue it is most heavily rooted in constructivism. Hendry, Frommer, and Walker (1999) write "recently it has been suggested that constructivist teaching-learning approaches underpin problem-based learning" (p. 360). They go on to define constructivism as "the fundamental assumption that knowledge cannot exist outside our minds. Knowledge cannot be given from one mind to another. New knowledge is constructed or created within individuals through experience" (p. 359). In other words, it is our interpretation of external reality that matters most. Translated into practice, constructivism supports three instructional principles: learning occurs through interactions with the environment; cognitive conflict is the stimulus for learning; and knowledge evolves through the negotiation of meaning with others (Savery & Duffy, 1998).

Applications

In order to better understand how problem-based learning might be implemented in the classroom, a closer look at the types of problems that facilitate problem-based learning, the role of students and teachers, and the ways in which students can be evaluated and assessed is needed.

Developing Problems

According to many educators, the success of problem-based learning as an instructional method hinges on the appropriateness of the problem. More specifically, the problem must be messy, ill-structured, and not amenable to a single solution. Slavkin (2004) writes, "Using ill-structured problems is the key element of problem-based learning. Problems should not be the traditional issues that were written on the board or that are easy enough for everyone in the class to understand. Rather, these are real-world problems that students will be faced with outside the classroom; they are likely to be issues or events facing their local communities and are unlikely to be solved through only one process or solution" (p. 78).

Amador, Miles, and Peters (2006) provide guidance for teachers on the development of good problems, with a specific focus on the content, the story, and the structure. They argue good problem building begins in much the same way other instructional materials are prepared, by first thinking about what students should learn. Thus, although often criticized for emphasizing process at the expense of content, advocates of problem-based learning stress the importance of both. Savin-Baden and Major (2004) suggest, for example, "that when designing problems it is essential to consider the balance between discipline knowledge and process skills" (p. 68). Secondly, problems should be placed in a context. According to Amador, Miles, and Peters (2006) "the stories that provide the context for our problems are most effective, it seems, if they address a contemporary issue, have an engaging narrative style, and perhaps employ a bit of humor" (p. 52). Finally, problems should be unstructured in nature so that they require higher-order thinking, group interaction, and cross-disciplinary knowledge.

The Role of Students

The role of students in a classroom that utilizes problem-based learning is much different from the role of students in a traditional classroom. Often, students shifting from one to the other feel anxiety, but once they have experienced problem-based learning, students tend to prefer it over traditional methods. Savin-Baden and Major (2004) outline the major changes in the role of the student as follows:

• From passive listener, observer, note-taker to active contributor, problem-solver;

• From private persona taking few risks to public persona taking many risks;

• From sense of responsibility to self to sense of responsibility to others;

• From competition with peers to cooperative and collaborative work with peers;

• From view of teachers as experts and authority figures to view of one-self and peers as sources of knowledge and authority.

In addition to contrasting the role of the student in a problem-based learning classroom with that of a student in a traditional classroom, Savin-Baden and Major (2004) further describe a problem-based learning student as: a decision-maker, a self-directed learner, a problem-solver, a communicator, a humanist, an advocate, a scientist, an explorer, a creative thinker, an apprentice, and a resource manager. Importantly, all of these descriptors focus on the student as a doer, as actively engaged in his or her environment.

Building on these characteristics, English and Kitsantas (2013) write that in order to be truly successful in problem-based learning, students must take responsibility for the learning process by “setting goals, monitoring, reflecting, and sustaining their motivation from the beginning of the project until the end.” However, for many students, these actions do not necessarily happen naturally or easily. Therefore, the authors add, the learning environment and teaching practices in problem-based learning must be designed “with intention to support students' self-regulated learning” (2013).

A discussion of the role of students in a problem-based learning classroom wouldn't be complete without emphasizing the role of teamwork. Although some argue that problem-based learning can be implemented with individual students, most believe teamwork is an essential component. "In life, we invariably have to work in teams, yet there is little in our school and university systems that equip us for life in teams" (Savin-Baden & Major, 2004, p. 70). A recent meta-analysis of instructional methods suggests teamwork may be a more effective method than competitive, individualistic arrangements; students who worked in teams demonstrated higher academic achievement, greater transfer of learning, and higher-level reasoning (Johnson, 1991, as cited in Savin-Baden & Major, 2004).

The Role of Teachers

Just as the role of the student changes in a problem-based learning environment, so too does the role of the teacher. In fact, those who administer problem-based learning in their classrooms typically refer to themselves as 'tutors' as opposed to 'teachers', emphasizing the shift from authority figure and expert to guide and facilitator. Nevertheless, the tutor still plays a critical role in the classroom, and can be a determining factor in whether problem-based learning succeeds or fails (Uden & Beaumont, 2006).

Because problem-based learning de-emphasizes the teacher's role as expert in a particular content domain, the question often arises whether a tutor needs to have content knowledge at all. As Uden & Beaumont (2004) explain "the question of whether a tutor should be a subject domain expert is a debatable one. Ambury (1995) believes that subject-based expertise is a disadvantage to student-centered learning and independence. On the contrary, Eagle, Harasym, and Mandin (1992) found expertise to be favorable…" (p. 68). Barrows, one of founders of problem-based learning, believes it is optimal for a tutor to be a content expert as well as a skilled facilitator; "the next best tutor is one who is good at being a tutor, although not an expert in the subject matter" (cited in Uden & Beaumont, 2004, p. 69).

Just as researchers disagree about whether subject expertise is necessary, they also disagree about whether facilitation is "just good teaching" or whether it is a skill that needs to be specifically learned (Savin-Baden & Major, 2004, p. 94). Some believe facilitation utilizes skills teachers already possess - such as probing, questioning, and challenging - whereas others believe facilitation is a skill not often used in traditional academic settings. The latter argue that facilitator training should be an integral part of teacher education. Regardless, much more agreement exists with regard to the skills that constitute good facilitation. Savin-Baden and Major (2004) list several verbal and non-verbal strategies for good facilitation, including but not limited to: asking questions, suggesting alternatives, summarizing, deflecting questions, using gestures, and scanning group members for cues. They also encourage facilitators to remember that they too are learners.

The Role of Assessment

Assessment of student performance in problem-based learning classrooms has proven to be one of the more challenging aspects of implementation. As Savin-Baden (2004) argues, "many forms of assessment still largely undermine collaborative learning and team process in problem-based learning…the way forward for the problem-based learning community is to…adopt assessment approaches that fit both with problem-based learning and the discipline into which it is placed" (p. 223). Furthermore, her research has shown that many students in problem-based learning environments feel their learning is unrewarded, and that evaluation of group work is flawed, at best (Savin-Baden, 2004).

In discussing the different types of assessment, Savin-Baden and Major (2004) suggest ways in which the learning process and evaluation methods may be better aligned. They begin by distinguishing between formative and summative assessment, defining the former as ongoing assessment for the purpose of improving learning and the latter as after-the-fact assessment whose primary purpose is measurement of learning. Some suggest that summative evaluation is better suited for testing of content knowledge, while formative assessment is better suited for evaluation of skills and behaviors; regardless, most agree that assessing both subject knowledge and process skills is essential in a problem-based learning environment (Uden & Beaumont, 2006). A second opposition of relevance to assessment issues is the distinction between criterion-referenced and norm-referenced evaluation. Whereas many traditional methods utilize the latter - evaluation of student performance in relation to the performance of their peers - problem-based learning environments typically rely on criterion-referenced assessment - or the evaluation of student performance relative to learning objectives.

Even though students are not typically evaluated relative to the performance of their peers in a problem-based classroom, peers do play a more pivotal role in assessment than in traditional classrooms. As Savin-Baden and Major (2004) argue, "as we are giving greater responsibility to students for their own learning then it makes sense for them to take more responsibility for judging whether they have achieved the learning goals" (p. 123). Thus, both self and peer assessment become central to the evaluation process. In addition, students in problem-based learning environments often work in groups and teams, thus the performance of a peer is a critical component to the success of a group. Indeed, one of the most difficult aspects of assessment in problem-based learning is "the difficulty of accurately assessing the contribution of an individual to a team" (Uden & Beaumont, 2006, p. 183). A number of resolutions have been put forward, the most common of which is the tripartite assessment approach, in which a team receives a mark for a group project, each member of the team receives a mark for an individual project, and each individual assesses the group process. Uden and Beaumont (2006) also offer team ground rules that discourage "freeloading" by its members.

Brigham Young University’s West, Williams, and Williams (2013), studying assessment of problem-based learning instruction at the Center for Animation, offer the following additional recommendations for effective assessment/evaluation:

• Establish “a context and culture of high expectations, collaboration, and evaluation”;
• Unite the students, teachers, and industry leaders as “shared stakeholders in the success of the project”;
• Identify key criteria, agreed on by everyone in the group, for evaluating progress;
• And ask questions to “evaluate progress toward meeting the criteria, using many approaches to gathering information and leading to recommendations for action” (2013).

Viewpoints

After discussing the assessment of student performance in problem-based learning environments, it is logical to proceed to a discussion of the assessment of problem-based learning itself. Is it an effective instructional method? Patel and Kaufman (2001) warned "as is often the case in education, innovations in practice outstrip theoretical justifications or empirical research demonstrating the validity of the approach" (p. B12). In the last several years, however, a great deal of research has investigated the effectiveness of problem-based learning, especially in relation to traditional teaching methods.

Just as problem-based learning was first implemented in a medical education setting, studies of its effectiveness have begun there as well. In general, research in this area has focused on motivational and cognitive outcomes. With regard to the former, "compared with students who studied under a traditional curriculum, students in problem-based learning classes report that they are more satisfied with their learning experiences, and possess more positive attitudes toward the curriculum. Studies have also shown that problem-based learning makes students more likely to learn on their own, and increases their interest in the subject matter" (Patel & Kaufman, 2001, B12). Furthermore, Jones, Epler, Mokri, Bryant, and Peretti (2013) write that “the number and variety of motivating opportunities available in problem-based learning courses can be a real asset to instructors in motivating students.” They warn, though, that “when managed inappropriately,” these opportunities can lead to student frustration and a lack of motivation (2013).

With regard to cognitive outcomes, however, results are less commanding. Meta-analyses have revealed that student performance in problem-based learning environments is nearly identical to the performance of students taught in traditional classrooms. Other research suggests problem-based learners may retain knowledge over greater periods of time, but initial scores of achievement in science and reasoning tend to be lower (Patel & Kaufman, 2001).

While comparisons of problem-based learning to traditional methods may yield some insight, others argue that research should focus on the theoretical foundations of problem-based learning rather than its relationship to other methods. "Reviews that have appeared since 2000 have been criticized because of their strictness in including only studies in which conventional and problem-based curricula are compared. In these reviews…the underlying theoretical foundations of problem-based learning are not addressed" (Dolman, De Grave, Wolfhagen, & van der Vleuten, 2005, p. 737). Rather, those criticizing the comparative approach to assessment applaud research showing the impact of problem-based learning on transfer of knowledge to new situations, lifelong learning, and student and teacher satisfaction. They also encourage more research on factors that influence the success or failure of problem-based learning, such as the role of tutor expertise, the quality of problems, the importance of students' prior knowledge, and group interactions.

In the end, some suggest research tips the scales in favor of problem-based learning. If cognitive outcomes are nearly identical, but students and teachers report greater satisfaction, then problem-based learning should become a more widespread practice. Others however, take a more pragmatic view, arguing "problem-based learning may be part of the solution, but it is not the whole answer. We need further research into teaching and learning to identify the best ways to make education meaningful and successful" (Patel & Kaufman, 2001, B12).

Terms & Concepts

Constructivism: The theoretical foundation of problem-based learning. Constructivists believe knowledge is created through our interaction with the environment. It cannot be given from one person to another - such as in a traditional classroom - nor can knowledge exist independent from our minds.

Formative Assessment: Often contrasted with summative assessment - or the measurement of learning after-the-fact - formative assessment is process oriented. It occurs as learning takes place, and is designed to provide feedback that improves the learning process.

Peer Assessment: Students are given greater responsibility for their learning in problem-based learning classrooms. One facet of this increased responsibility is participation in assessment, both of themselves and their peers.

Problem-Centered Instruction: One of the fundamental characteristics of problem-based learning. Rather than organizing instruction around a content domain, instruction is organized around a problem. Problems are intentionally designed to be messy, ill-structured, and not amenable to a single solution; they also often mirror problems students might confront in their communities.

Self-Directed Learning: One of the intended outcomes of problem-based learning. In traditional classrooms, students are often passive recipients of information given to them by teachers. In problem-based learning environments, students are active; they must take responsibility for their own learning,

Summative Assessment: Often contrasted with formative assessment - or the feedback provided throughout the learning process - summative assessment occurs after-the-fact. Whereas formative assessment improves learning as it occurs, summative assessment is meant to measure learning after instruction has taken place.

Teamwork: Problem-based learning environments encourage active learning, a major component of which is working in groups. Group work, advocates argue, mirrors situations students are likely to encounter in 'the real world.'

Traditional Teaching Methods: Problem-based learning developed as educators became dissatisfied with traditional teaching methods. In traditional classrooms, teachers are viewed as experts, students are typically passive, and instruction occurs mostly via lecture.

Tutor: In problem-based learning environments, teachers are no longer viewed as authority figures or experts. Rather, teachers are viewed as facilitators and guides; the title 'tutor' communicates the new role of the adult figure in the classroom, and also suggests that he or she continues to learn.

Bibliography

Amador, J. A., Miles, L., & Peters, C. B. (2006). The practice of problem-based learning: A guide to implementing PBL in the college classroom. Bolton, MA: Anker Publishing Company, Inc.

Dolmans, D., De Grave, W., Wolfhagen, I., van der Vleuten, C. (2005). Problem-based learning: Future challenges for educational practice and research. Medical Education, 39, p732-741. Retrieved May 31, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=17316445&site=ehost-live

English, M.C., & Kitsantas, A. (2013). Supporting student self-regulated learning in problem- and project-based learning. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7, 127–150. Retrieved December 6, 2013, from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90663292&site=ehost-live

Hendry, G. D., Frommer, M. , & Walker, R. A. (1999). Constructivism and problem-based learning. Journal of Further and Higher Education, 23, p. 359-371. Retrieved May 31, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=5989498&site=ehost-live

Jones, B.D., Epler, C.M., Mokri, P., Bryant, L.H., & Paretti, M.C. (2013). The effects of a collaborative problem-based learning experience on students' motivation in engineering capstone courses. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7, 33–71. Retrieved December 6, 2013, from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90663293&site=ehost-live

Patel, V. L., & Kaufman, D. R. (2001). Medical education isn't just about solving problems. Chronicle of Higher Education, 47, B12. Retrieved May 31, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4040546&site=ehost-live

Savin-Baden, M. (2004). Understanding the impact of assessment on students in problem-based learning. Innovations in Education and Teaching International, 41, p. 223-233. Retrieved May 31, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=13396324&site=ehost-live

Savin-Baden, M., & Major, C.H. (2004). Foundations of problem-based learning. New York, NY: Open University Press.

Savory, J.M., & Duffy, T.M. (1998). Problem based learning: An instructional model and its constructivist framework. In R. Fogarty (Ed.), Problem-based learning: A collection of articles (pp. 73 - 92). Arlington Heights, IL: Skylight Training and Publishing, Inc.

Slavkin, M.L. (2004). Authentic learning: How learning about the brain can shape the development of students. Lanham, MD: The Rowman & Littlefield Publishing Group, Inc.

Uden, L., & Beaumont, C. (2006). Technology and problem-based learning. Hershey, PA: Information Science Publishing.

West, R.E., Williams, G.S., & Williams, D.D. (2013). Improving problem-based learning in creative communities through effective group evaluation. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7, 1–42. Retrieved December 6, 2013, from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90663291&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Barell, J. (2007). Problem-based learning: An inquiry approach. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Company.

Margetson, D. (1994). Current educational reform and the significance of problem-based learning. Studies in Higher Education, 19, p. 15-19. Retrieved May 31, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9511241822&site=ehost-live

Savin-Baden, M. (2000). Problem-based learning in higher education: Untold stories. Philadelphia, PA: Open University Press.

North Carolina at Chapel Hill. She currently works as a research associate in undergraduate admissions.