Progressive Education

This article presents an overview of progressive education. Progressive education was part of a larger social movement that began at the turn of the twentieth century. Although conflicting ideas were sometimes proposed under the progressive label, making it difficult to define the movement as a whole, progressive education today is most closely associated with the work of John Dewey. John Dewey, often referred to as the greatest American philosopher of the twentieth century, believed that curriculum should be determined in part by the interests of the child, that education should serve the needs of the whole child, and that schools should help prepare students for participation in a democracy. Importantly, he also believed progressive education could help create a more egalitarian society. Progressivism was the dominant approach to education at various times throughout the twentieth century, but has largely fallen out of favor since the 1980s.

Overview

Many scholars use the pendulum as a metaphor to describe the history of educational philosophy and pedagogy in America. Since the beginning of compulsory schooling in the late nineteenth century, beliefs about education have swung between two extremes known as traditionalism and progressivism. The pendulum has often swung quickly from one to the other, coinciding with larger cultural and social events, so that the history of education in America is characterized by clearly delineated turning points. By the 1980s, however, traditionalism came to dominate the public school system, and many argued that while progressivism may still inform specific educational practices, it is unlikely to emerge again as a broader educational movement.

Before describing the many shifts between progressivism and traditionalism, it is important to first understand how these competing philosophies differ. This comparison is complicated by the fact that contradictory ideas have often flourished under the label of progressivism, so much so that some historians believe progressive education has become a 'meaningless term.' Nevertheless, progressive education is typically associated with one particular strand of progressivism - known both as child-centered progressivism and pedagogical progressivism - and can be characterized by the following:

• Progressive educators believe education should be child-centered. The curricula should be determined, in part, by the interests and motivations of the individual child.

• Progressive educators believe the teacher should serve as a guide and facilitator, rather than someone who simply transmits knowledge to her students.

• Progressive educators believe students learn by doing. Proponents of experiential learning and problem-solving, progressives are critical of rote memorization, repetitive drilling of students, and lecture as dominant instructional methods.

• Progressive educators believe in the education of the whole child, including the child's intellectual, emotional, spiritual, moral, physical, and social development.

• Progressive educators believe self-control and responsibility should be fostered within each child, so that discipline is self-imposed rather than administered by an external authority figure.

• Progressive educators believe schools are a vehicle for social reform; by giving all children access to education, schools can help alleviate racial and social inequality, and prepare students to become active and engaged citizens in a democratic society.

By contrast, traditionalists favor teacher-centered classrooms; a standardized curriculum that emphasizes the basics such as English, history, science, and math; the use of textbooks and lectures as the primary means through which knowledge is transmitted to students; classroom management principles that rely on the teacher as disciplinarian; and methods of evaluation that measure students' recall as an indication of learning.

Although progressivism is often associated with education and schooling, as a philosophy it was a part of a much larger social movement. The decades between 1880 and 1930 are referred to as "The Progressive Era" and marked a period of American history during which the country was transitioning from an agrarian society to an industrial one. Reformers sought to address what they viewed as the evils of industrialism, and demanded that the government regulate industry, conserve resources, and look after the welfare of its citizens. Reformers also advocated universal schooling, and believed education could eradicate some of society's ills.

It was within this social and political climate that John Dewey—the philosopher whose name is most closely associated with progressive education—became a major influence in American education. As professor and chair of the department of philosophy, psychology, and pedagogy at the University of Chicago, Dewey created the Laboratory School in 1894, where he was able to implement and test many of his progressive pedagogical practices. In the decades that followed, a number of independent schools were founded throughout the country, modeled after the Laboratory School and its principles.

While Dewey's contribution to the movement is immeasurable, progressivism was much larger than any single individual or any collection of independent schools. In fact, three different strands of progressive education flourished in the early twentieth century. The first strand, modeled after the child-centered pedagogy of John Dewey and G. Stanley Hall, advocated individualized instruction tailored to the developmental stage and interests of the child. The second strand, known as social re-constructionism, emphasized community and the development of a more egalitarian society through schooling. The third strand, known both as administrative progressivism and social reform, emphasized the role of the environment in teaching and learning. Associated with the work of Edward L. Thorndike, and concerned with efficiency and scientific management of schools, administrative progressivism led to practices such as intelligence testing, the separation of students according to ability, and vocational education. One historian argues that "one cannot understand the history of education in the United States during the twentieth century unless one realizes that Edward L. Thorndike won and John Dewey lost" (as quoted in Laboree, 2005, p. 280).

Yet, child-centered progressivism was a strong enough collective movement in the early twentieth century to support its own organization. The Progressive Education Association (PEA), whose membership peaked during the Great Depression, became best known for authoring the "Eight Year Study." The study proved that students educated in non-traditional academic settings did just as well, if not better, than their traditionally schooled counterparts—on measures of intellectual curiosity, extracurricular participation, drop-out rates, and grades—in both high school and college. The study—once referred to as “the best-kept educational secret of the twentieth century”—had little impact on the educational community (as quoted in Hayes, 2007, p. 28).

For thirty years, the principles of the Progressive Education Association and the progressive education movement would “fundamentally alter the course of American education” (Little, 2013). However, in the 1950s a “conservative swing of politics rendered the movement out of favor with the American education establishment” (Little, 2013).

Indeed, when John Dewey died in 1952, he had a mostly pessimistic view of the impact of progressivism, believing that it had failed to penetrate the foundations of educational institutions in America. He may have been his own harshest critic at the time, but he would soon be joined by a chorus of critical voices. It was during this decade that traditionalists accused progressive educators of being anti-intellectual, and argued for a return to the basics of math, science, history, and English. Their concerns were fueled, in large part, by the Cold War, which would dominate US foreign policy in the coming decades. With an aim toward winning the arms race with Russia, educators began emphasizing the importance of science and math education; when the Russians launched Sputnik in 1958, beating the US into space, traditionalists' recommendations took on a new sense of urgency.

Many might have guessed that the launching of Sputnik was the last nail in progressivism's coffin, but once again, larger cultural and social shifts during the 1960s and 1970s impacted education significantly, and the progressive movement found itself reborn. The assassinations of John F. Kennedy, Robert Kennedy, and Martin Luther King Jr.; the civil rights movement; the launching of the federal government's War on Poverty; and the war in Vietnam fostered a spirit of rebellion and need for change that trickled down to America's schools. Educators experienced a renewed commitment to issues of equity and access, while once again reevaluating traditional methods of teaching. Critics suggested students were bored, and that education should be about what students want to learn, rather than what experts think they should know. During this time, schools experimented with integrated curricula, open classrooms, and whole language. Whole language - with its rejection of basal readers and phonics, and its emphasis on meaning and context - created more controversy, and more long-lasting controversy, than other innovations of the time.

Just as traditionalism's reign following the launch of Sputnik was relatively short-lived, so too was progressivism's return to prominence in the 60s and 70s. In 1983, President Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education issued its report "A Nation at Risk," a watershed moment in American education that would, in retrospect, signal the decline of progressivism. The report documented declines in academic achievement as measured by standardized tests, not only in comparison to the performance of students in other industrialized nations, but compared to the performance of students in the United States in the 1950s. In an attempt to thwart the mediocrity they believed threatened America's schools, traditionalists advocated for a return to the basics, the creation of curriculum standards, the development of 'high-stakes testing', and increasing accountability for schools and teachers.

The trends that began in the 80s and 90s with the publication of "A Nation at Risk" continued into the twenty-first century with new federal initiatives like Goals 2000 and No Child Left Behind. With increased emphasis on accountability and high stakes testing, and attempts to create national standards for curricula, the federal government's latest initiatives gave traditionalists yet another victory over progressives. While pockets of resistance thrive, it is uncertain whether progressive education will ever regain the momentum it once had. However, Edwards and Greenwalt describe what they call a “paradox” at the heart of the mid-2010s push to globalize education: at a time when administrators, particularly in higher education, “are seeking to globalize their programs (often for reasons having to do with increasing international competition and decreasing funding for education), global education offers a window through which progressive ideals might be re-asserted in increasingly standardized teaching and learning environments” (2013).

Indeed, Little even describes how the “seminal tenets of progressive education bear a striking resemblance to the newly fashionable principles associated with a new movement known as 21st Century Education” (Little, 2013). As such, it is possible progressive education may wax yet again.

Further Insights

The following section highlights some of the prominent thinkers of the progressive education movement, both past and present. While it is nearly impossible to credit all the individuals who have contributed to progressivism—especially as it is taught and practiced by hundreds of individuals in private schools and teacher education programs all over the country—the brief descriptions that follow highlight some of the better known.

John Dewey: Often named the most significant educational philosopher in the United States in the twentieth century, John Dewey's name has become synonymous with progressive education. Born in 1859 in Burlington, Vermont, Dewey advanced through schooling at his own pace and graduated from high school at age fifteen. He attended the University of Vermont, taught high school for several years, received his doctorate in philosophy from Johns Hopkins University, and eventually settled at the University of Chicago where he opened the Laboratory School. He spent the majority of his career at Columbia University, where he taught for nearly four decades until his retirement in 1939. Some argue that child-centered progressivism began losing its influence in schools–especially in relation to administrative progressivism—when Dewey left the Laboratory School, where he had put many of his theories into practice.

Even though Dewey is often named the most significant educational philosopher in the United States in the twentieth century, he is also one of the most misunderstood and misrepresented. The sheer volume of his work—over forty books and hundreds of articles over a span of six decades—makes it difficult for anyone to represent his work in its entirety. His ideas also evolved over time and he was notoriously difficult to read, both of which contributed to the confusion surrounding his work. In fact, his style was described "…by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes as 'inarticulate', and by William James as 'damnable; you might even say Goddamnable'" (as quoted in Lynn, 1999, p. 2). Nevertheless, many of his works—such as "The School and Society" and "Democracy in Education"—are some of the most frequently cited in the field of education.

Even if his work is difficult to understand, many of the core ideas of child-centered progressivism can be readily traced to Dewey. He believed, for example, that education should be about learning to learn rather than instruction in specific core subjects. He described the school as a community—a mirror of the larger society—where students could prepare to become citizens of a democracy. He believed lessons should be tailored to the interests of students and to their developmental readiness as well. Finally, he argued that students learn best by doing—through experiential learning and problem solving—rather than through rote memorization or listening to lectures. Ironically, Dewey himself was a traditional teacher, and practiced very few of the progressive techniques he preached.

Francis W. Parker: Even if John Dewey's name is most closely associated with progressivism, he himself dubbed Francis Parker 'the father' of the progressive education movement. Dewey and Parker were colleagues in Chicago at the turn of the century, and while Dewey was testing his theories in the laboratory, Parker was learning by trial and error in the schools. The Parker School opened in 1901 but many of Parker's pedagogical practices were developed in the decades prior, and summarized in his 1883 book "Talks on Teaching." He believed in learning through experience, the integration of subject matter, schooling as preparation for citizenship, and the education of the whole child. The Parker School flourished in the first three decades of the twentieth century and while it continues to operate today, some argue it has lost touch with its progressive roots.

Maria Montessori: Progressive education may have eroded in some of the institutions in which it was founded, but it is alive and well in other school communities. The rise in popularity of Montessori schools, especially at the pre-school and elementary levels, suggests that the demand for progressive education has not waned entirely. In fact, Montessori's most rapid period of growth occurred during the 1990s, just as traditionalism was gaining strength in public schools.

The Montessori Method was founded by Maria Montessori, an Italian born physician who first developed her theories about teaching and learning while working with children with mental disabilities. She believed education should be tailored to the individual child and that children are not taught by others, but rather teach themselves. In an effort to help children teach themselves, she designed the classroom as a prepared learning environment, where teachers guide students in their interactions with materials and lessons. Teachers are encouraged to foster students' imaginations, help them become independent learners, and help them develop the skills that will make them contributing members of society.

Secondary Montessori teachers, in particular, are prepared in Montessori teacher education programs in areas that build on Montessori practice with younger children. This includes “executive functioning, self-reflection, time management, the advanced application of the three-period lesson, and, eventually, long-term planning and implementation of projects” (Donahoe, Cichucki, Coad-Bernard, Coe, & Scholtz, 2013).

Other Past & Present Day Progressive Theorists

William Heard Kilpatrick was a student of John Dewey's at Columbia in the early 1900s and wrote extensively on the project method, "the idea that children are best taught through problem-solving types of projects that are somehow connected, related to, or made to be a part of real life" (Norris, 2004, p. 43). Ellsworth Collings, a student of Kilpatrick's, continued to write about project teaching during his career. Harold Rugg is often credited with the development of the integrated curriculum, but he is perhaps most well known for his staunch belief in the ability of public education to create a more democratic, egalitarian society. As a result, Rugg's work was often criticized, and he himself was accused of Communist leanings.

One of the ironies in the battle between progressives and traditionalists is that while traditionalists won in the public schools, progressives were able to maintain control of teacher education programs. Thus, there are hundreds of faculty members in schools of education around the country who espouse the principles of progressive education and who are training the next generation of public school teachers. As Labaree (2005) writes, "pedagogical progressivism, therefore, may have lost the fight to shape practice in schools…but in the educational school it found an ideological safe haven" (p. 286).

Finally, in addition to the academicians who spread progressive thought through their teaching in colleges and universities, many individuals put progressive education into practice in private and independent schools throughout the country. Some of the more famous individuals include Helen Parkhurst, who founded the Dalton School in New York City in 1919; Marietta Johnson who founded the School of Organic Education in Fairhope, Alabama in 1907; and Carolina Pratt, the founder of the City and Country School, also located in New York City, which opened in 1914. Semel and Sadovnik have documented the history of at least twelve progressive schools.

Viewpoints

This summary began by comparing the history of educational philosophy in America to the pendulum. Others, however, have chosen different metaphors to describe the relationship between traditionalism and progressivism, as when historian David. J. Ferrero referred to it as 'The 100 Years War" (as quoted in Hayes, 2007, p. 155). Indeed, that the battle between the two extremes has been contentious at times is no secret, and yet, many today are calling for a truce, recognizing that the way forward may be found in a middle ground. Pogrow (1997) writes, "Education cannot live by either progressivism or traditionalism alone. Both philosophies are right; each possesses important pieces of the puzzle for creating better schools (p. 150). Even John Dewey himself argued against extremism, writing that we "should think in terms of education itself rather than in terms of some 'ism about education, even if such an 'ism is 'progressivism.' For, in spite of itself, any movement that thinks and acts in terms of an 'ism becomes so involved in reaction against other 'isms that it is unwittingly controlled by them" (as quoted in Deblois, 2002, p. 74). Although it's too early to tell, perhaps the pendulum will no longer serve as an appropriate metaphor for American education, as extremism is replaced by a new philosophy that combines the best elements of both.

Terms & Concepts

A Nation at Risk: The report, published in 1983 by President Reagan's National Commission on Excellence in Education, argued that American education had come to be characterized by mediocrity, as evidenced by rising illiteracy, declining test scores, and poor achievement relative to international competition. As a result of its publication, progressivism fell out of favor, and traditionalism became the dominant philosophy in the decades that followed.

Child-Centered Progressivism: One of the three strands of the progressive education movement of the early twentieth century. Most closely associated with the work of John Dewey and G. Stanley Hall, advocates of child-centered progressivism argued that instruction should be tailored to the developmental stage and individual interests of the child.

Eight-Year Study: A study conducted by the Progressive Education Association in the 1930s and 1940s, the results of which showed that students educated in non-traditional high school curricula, faired as well, if not better, than their traditionally educated counterparts. Despite the success of the study, it had little lasting impact.

John Dewey: Twentieth-century American philosopher known for his contributions to the progressive education movement. An advocate of what has become known as child-centered progressivism; Dewey started the Laboratory School while at the University of Chicago, and spent the last forty years of his career teaching at Columbia.

Progressive Education: Part of a larger social movement that emerged at the turn of the twentieth century, progressive education is one of two philosophies that has characterized American education over the last one hundred years. Composed of many different strands of thought, sometimes competing, progressives generally believe education should be tailored to the interests of the child; teachers should facilitate learning rather than transmit knowledge; students learn best by doing; education should serve the needs of the whole child; and schools are a vehicle for social reform.

Social Engineering Reform: One of the three strands of the progressive education movement of the early twentieth century, also known as administrative progressivism. Most closely associated with the work of Edward L. Thorndike, advocates of this strand emphasized the role of the environment in teaching and learning. Of the three strands, social engineering reform strays the farthest from what today are considered the core beliefs of pedagogical progressivism, and arguably contributes most to the 'contradictory themes' that emerge under the progressive label.

Social Re-Constructionism: One of the three strands of the progressive education movement of the early twentieth century. An outgrowth of John Dewey's belief that the school should mirror the larger community and prepare students to become active and engaged democratic citizens, advocates of social re-constructionism believed schools could help create a more egalitarian society.

Traditionalism: One of the two educational philosophies that characterized American education in the twentieth century. Traditionalists believe in teacher-centered learning, a curriculum that emphasizes core subjects, the teacher as authoritarian and disciplinarian, and standardized testing and accountability. Traditionalism has dominated theory and practice in the public schools for the last three decades.

Bibliography

Ackerman, D.B. (2003). Synthesize traditional and progressive education for today's students. Education Digest, 68, 4-11. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete

Brown, I.B., & Finn, M. E. (Eds.). (1988). Readings from progressive education: A movement and its professional journal. Lanham MD: University Press of American, Inc.

Deblois, R. (2002). John Dewey in a new century: Constructing meaning from real experience. Independent School, 61, 72-77. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Donahoe, M., Cichucki, P., Coad-Bernard, S., Coe, B., & Scholtz, B. (2013). Best practices in Montessori secondary programs. Montessori Life, 25, 16–23.

Edwards, L.A., & Greenwalt, K.A. (2013). Mining the present: Reconstructing progressive education in an era of global change. International Journal of Progressive Education, 9, 1–15. Retrieved December 6, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Feldman, D., & Watson, T. (2003). The eight-year study revisited: John Burroughs School, St. Louis, Missouri. Educational Research Quarterly, 27, 5-13. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Hayes, W. (2007). The progressive education movement: Is it still a factor in today's schools? Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Hirsch, E. D. (1997). Why traditional education is more progressive. American Enterprise, 8, 42-45.

Labaree, D. F. (2005). Progressivism, schools and schools of education: An American romance. Pedagogica Historica, 41, 275-288. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Little, T. (2013). 21st century learning and progressive education: An intersection. International Journal of Progressive Education, 9 , 84–96. Retrieved December 6, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Lynn, O. (1999). Dewey: The progressive era's misunderstood giant. Education Week, 18, 29-31. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Norris, N. D. (2004). The promise and failure of progressive education. Lanham, MD: Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, Inc.

Pogrow, S. (2006). The Bermuda triangle of American education: Pure traditionalism, pure progressivism, and good intentions. Phi Delta Kappan, 88, 142-150. Retrieved April 2, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Semel, S., & Sadovnik, A. R. (Eds.). (1999). Schools of tomorrow, schools of today: What happened to progressive education. New York, NY: Peter Lang Publishing, Inc.

Suggested Reading

Brown, S. I., & Finn, M. E. (Eds.). (1988). Readings from progressive education. Lanham, MD: University Press of America, Inc.

Dewey, J. (1900). The school and society. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Dewey, J. (1916). Democracy and education. New York, NY: Macmillan.

Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. New York, NY: MacMillan.

Thorndike, E. (1921). Principles of learning. Instructional Science.