Residential Care Education

This paper provides an overview of the beginnings of residential care and the shaping of residential care in providing education services to confined individuals in the United States. It also describes the advantages and disadvantages of residential care, special education law, and educational services in residential care. In the United States, specific studies on educational services in residential care are limited. This could be attributed to the advocacy efforts of parents, individuals with disabilities, and their advocates. However, individuals with disabilities continue to be placed in residential care facilities.

Keywords Activities of Daily Living; Disabilities; Historical Perspectives; IDEA 2004; Individualized Education Program; Life Skills; Normalization; Residential Care

Overview

Society has always struggled with the care and education of individuals with disabilities. The care of individuals with disabilities closely mirrors the changes in society's viewpoints of individuals with disabilities. Past and present educational settings or placement options for individuals with special needs include residential schools, specialized schools, self-contained classrooms, resource rooms, teachers serving as consultants and homebound or hospital instruction. Each educational setting or placement option offers advantages and disadvantages for individuals with special needs. It should be acknowledged that no single educational setting or placement option will meet the needs of all individuals with special needs. Thus, each educational setting or placement option should be considered of equal importance regardless of its history. The purpose of this paper is to provide general information on the history, criticisms, placement, and educational services provided by residential care facilities.

The Beginnings of Residential Care

In earlier times, the individual with any type of difference was seen as an omen, curse, children of the devil and were often beaten, left to die, or subject to other cruel actions (Beck, 2002; Peterson, 1987). Peterson stated that with the spread of Christianity, individuals with disabilities became more protected (p. 93). This period of time marked the beginning of residential institutions or homes for the physically or mentally impaired (Peterson, 1987).

Residential schools have existed since the 1500s in England. The first mental institution, St. Mary of Bethlehem, was established in London in 1547 (Smith & Luckasson, 1995). The term Bedlam, often used to mean noise and chaos, was originally used to describe individuals at this facility. Sadly, the residents were considered to be an entertainment, as outsiders would pay money to watch them (Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

Johann Guggenbuhl established the first institution for what he termed "cretins" (mentally retarded) in Switzerland in 1840 (Peterson, 1987; Smith & Luckasson, 1995). Unfortunately, his facility, Abendberg, closed in 1867 under allegations of financial and medical malpractice (Smith & Luckasson, 1995). However, his efforts of early advocacy were later adopted internationally and led to the establishment of residential care. In the 1800's and continuing until World War II, residential schools and institutions worldwide provided education to many individuals who were deaf, blind, and mentally retarded (Peterson, 1987).

History of Residential Care in the United States

Residential schools in Europe primarily provided custodial care for individuals with special needs. The residential schools founded in the United States provided the first formalized education for individuals needing specific educational instruction. The purpose of establishing the schools was to provide specialized living arrangements to educate and house individuals who were deaf, juvenile delinquents, blind, or mentally retarded. In the United States, the first residential care facility was established for the deaf in 1817 in Connecticut. Thomas Gallaudet established the American Asylum for the Education of the Deaf and Dumb, currently the American School for the Deaf (Cruickshank & Johnson, 1958; Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

The first residential facility for juvenile delinquents, the House of Refuge, was established in 1825 in New York by the Society for the Prevention of Pauperism (New York State Archives, n.d.). This facility was considered a reformatory school that housed children who were vagrants or petty thieves. The school required the residents to work, learn basic literacy skills for religious purposes, and was one of the first to use a behavior system.

It is interesting that Samuel Gridley Howe was among the first to question the practice of isolation and segregation even though he established two residential facilities for the blind and mentally retarded. Howe opened the Perkins Institute for the Blind in Boston in 1832 (Cruickshank & Johnson, 1958; Peterson, 1987; Smith & Luckasson, 1995). The Perkins Institute has a rich history of accomplishments including educating Laura Bridgman, who some believe to have been the first educated person who was deaf-blind, and of course, its most famus resident Helen Keller, who others believe is the first educated person who was deaf-blind (Perkins School for the Blind, n.d.).

In 1848, Howe established the Massachusetts School for Idiotic Children, an institution for the mentally retarded (Smith & Luckasson, 1995). The school was considered a model for educational practices for the mentally retarded. The institution was renamed the Walter E. Fernald State School in 1925. Unfortunately, the school is now best known as the site of questionable research ethics involving informed consent. Experiments were conducted in the late 1940s to early 1950s by Harvard University and MIT to determine the effects of repeated radiation exposures on humans. The most troubling part of the experiments was that the individuals and their families did not understand or provide informed consent for the experiments.

Smith and Luckasson (1995) stated that the first school for the physically disabled was established in 1884 in Philadelphia. By 1917, most states had a residential school for the mentally retarded, deaf, and/or blind (Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

Initially residential schools in the United States were for the establishment of training and educating persons with special needs. Cruickshank and Johnson (1958) stated that the establishment of residential care facilities was tolerated as a way to provide care for individuals who could not care for themselves. By developing and funding residential schools, society could reduce its responsibility for individuals with special needs through training and education. While society recognized a need to provide services, many residential care facilities were built away from towns and followed the guidelines established in England.

In the 1930's and 1940's, growth was in large-scale institutions and segregation of the handicapped. During the depression, the societal and economic viewpoints had many questioning if funding of residential schools and the educational practices within them was of any value. The lack of funding and trained staff, overcrowded facilities, and societal shift forced many institutions to become custodial care facilities mainly for the mentally retarded (Peterson, 1987). Soldiers and personnel returning from World War II increased the need for specialized services specifically for individuals with behavioral, physical, and mental deficits (Peterson, 1987). As a result, society once again developed an interest in residential care and education of the disabled as the wars added many disabled individuals to society.

Until the late 1950s, residential programs for individuals with special needs continued although services continued to be separate, isolated, and segregated (Peterson, 1987; Smith & Luckasson, 1995). Individuals with mild needs were provided educational services. Unfortunately, in many of these facilities, different forms of neglect and deprivation were practiced, especially if the individual had multiple disabilities (i.e., cerebral palsy and deaf). Once an individual entered they seldom left and most residents lacked the necessary skills to survive in the outside world (Peterson, 1987). In the 1970s and 1980s, many institutions were under intense public scrutiny due to inhumane conditions and the minimum of care being provided. As a result, many courts closed the facilities as they actually violated basic human rights (Smith & Luckasson, 1995).

During this same period, society saw the emergence of parent groups and associations such as the Association of Retarded Citizens (ARC) who advocated for community services and education of individuals with mental retardation. Eventually, through Public Law 94-142 (P.L. 94-142), individuals with special needs were guaranteed the right to a free, appropriate education regardless of the disability. Prior to P.L. 94-142, public schools were not required to provide services for individuals with severe handicaps. Public education services were refused for a variety of reasons (i.e., behavior, lack of self-care skills or not able keep pace with the traditional education program). The lack of educational programs required many individuals to live at home or in institutions.

An emerging philosophy of normalization began in Scandinavia during the late 1970s and early 1980s (Smith & Luckasson, 1995). Normalization promoted the concept that individuals with mental retardation should live as the rest of society. That is, individuals with disabilities should live, work, and be educated as any member of society in his or her community. This principle advanced court cases in civil rights lawsuits and focused the public's attention on the mentally retarded living as the general public; that residential care was deplorable. This led to deinstitutionalization of individuals with mental retardation and the emergence of community living arrangements.

Advantages & Disadvantages of Residential Care

Currently, most of society would agree that the best placement for any individual, regardless of ability, is in the home and community environment. However, there are positive aspects of residential care placement. Residential education services may be a better alternative for the family that cannot provide the emotional, physical, or financial support for an individual with a disability (Gilliam & Easterbrooks, 1997; UNICEF, 2005).

Another advantage, often cited in the deaf community, is the sense of belonging to a community with similar disabilities. In other words, if a child who is deaf is the only child in a community having deafness, then attending a residential school for the deaf may provide better resources in terms of developing stronger peer relationships, self-identity, and education with similar students (Gilliam & Easterbrooks, 1997).

Since the advent of residential schools there have been criticisms (Gilliam & Easterbrooks, 1997; Schwartz, 2005; UNICEF, 2005). A few of the criticisms include

• Separation and isolation from families and non-disabled peers

• The stigma of placement

• Retention, training, and education of staff

For many individuals in residential care, contact and daily interaction with families and non-disabled peers must be carefully planned, as it does not happen naturally in the environment. Residential schools must assume the financial, safety, and welfare issues of the family. However, the family unit in a residential school consists of larger groups of individuals with unique needs. The larger units have limited funds, which can lead to problems with overcrowding, lack of individual attention or support, or availability of resources. Advocates for individuals with special needs feel that living with consistent caregivers is essential in providing for bonding and consistency of care (Schwartz, 2005). Therefore, advocates do not view residential care facilities and their educational services as providing this consistency of care due mainly to the large staff turnover (Bain, 1998; Gilliam & Easterbrooks, 1997; Schwartz, 2005; UNICEF, 2005).

Another criticism is the stigma associated with the placement. Many feel that the emphasis is placed on the disability and its stereotypes versus the individual and his or her unique needs and abilities (Schwartz, 2005). For example, an individual placed in a residential school may be mentally retarded and able to independently perform basic activities of daily living (i.e., eating, dressing, and bathing). However, another individual may be mentally retarded and unable to perform any activities of daily living independently. Thus, the perception of the community may be that all individuals residing in the facility are not able to perform any task independently.

Staffing issues, such as high turnover rates and lack of educational training, are another area of concern. In the past residential schools did not have the access to the financial resources allowed to public schools. As a result, schools often experienced financial difficulties that lead to maltreatment, abuse, and neglect of residents by the limited staff. The schools basically became warehouses and provided minimum care in the form of custodial care services. As a result, residential settings provided the basics of survival (food, shelter, and clothing) with education of the residents far less a priority.

Special Education Laws Pertaining to Residential Care Education

With the passage of P. L. 94-142 and its reauthorization known as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act 2004 (IDEA, 2004), provisions have been made in the federal law regarding educating students in residential settings. Specifically, IDEA (2004) states:

If placement in a public or private residential program is necessary to provide special education and related services to a child with a disability, the program, including non-medical care and room and board, must be at no cost to the parents of the child.

The decision to place an individual in a residential facility can be made by the Individualized Education Plan (IEP) committee. If the committee makes the recommendation, IDEA 2004 makes it clear that the costs are borne by the local or state education agency. The individual who needs this type of educational program would retain the procedural safeguards afforded to an individual with special needs in the local school district. These safeguards would include, but are not limited to, the right to an IEP, review and/or revision of the IEP, and access to related services.

Determination of Placement

Currently, children with any type of disability can receive free appropriate public education in the public schools. As stated earlier, if the IEP committee determines that the public school cannot provide the necessary services needed by the individual, then residential educational placement is a no cost option for the family (IDEA, 2004).

Along the continuum of care of individuals with disabilities, residential schools are often considered the most restrictive placement option (Schwartz, 2005). However, placement in residential care determined by the IEP committee or the parents might provide better educational opportunities. Currently, the adult with disabilities is placed in residential care comprised of community or group homes. Residential care can be an appropriate and satisfying placement with continued family advocacy and participation. The education programs in residential care can provide an opportunity for the individual to establish independence in activities of daily living. Participating in the development and implementation of care plans in residential care will assist in maintaining appropriate educational services in the residential care system (Bain, 2005).

A parent can voluntarily enroll his or her child in a public residential facility. In this case, the individual can attend the local school district and receive services or participate in the educational programs in the residential facility. If the facility is considered to be a public institution, the same provisions apply for a free appropriate public education as in the local public school. If the school is considered a private school and the parent voluntarily enrolls the individual, then the local school district does not have to provide free appropriate education (IDEA, 2004). The United States Department of Education provides complete details regarding residential services and who is responsible for payment and services.

Before placing an individual in a residential facility for education services, the stakeholders (i.e., schools, agencies, etc.) and family need to openly and honestly discuss available options. Issues to be addressed include

• The availability of community resources to support the individual;

• Family support and agreement to place the individual outside of the home;

• The financial responsibilities and obligations by all parties;

• The ability of the facility to provide the care needed by the individual; and,

• The training, education, and staffing ratios of the facility.

Educational Services in Residential Care

As discussed through the historical perspectives in this paper, educational services were developed primarily for specific disabilities groups. Many residential schools that continue to exist are for individuals who are deaf, blind, or mentally retarded. However, each of these schools has allowed individuals who have dual or multiple impairments a method of survival to meet funding needs.

The educational services provided to individuals in residential care depend on the types of disabilities accepted by the facility. Most facilities follow the policies and procedures set forth by the local and state education agencies to meet the educational requirements designed by the state and federal governments. In other words, the individual can continue to pursue a high school diploma or certificate and vocational training. Additionally, the facilities provide instruction in activities of daily living (ADLs). The ADLs taught can be as simple as learning to independently dress to as complex as learning financial independence.

For example, an individual with severe mental disabilities may learn adaptive skills for basic living. Skills such as grooming, communication systems, and eating may compromise the educational program at the facility. Educational skills such as literacy development and basic math may be taught to another individual to assist in moving the individual into community or group homes outside of the residential facility.

Residents of these facilities are entitled to educational services within or provided by the local school district. This means that the school district must accept the student into the public school and develop an Individualized Education Program (IEP). As stated earlier, the individual is entitled, through the IEP, to all of the resources of the public school system.

In Conclusion

Residential care continues to develop teaching methods, provide staff with training and educational opportunities to increase their level of skills in providing care, and collaborating services with other agencies and public schools. Historically, residential schools provided a service not provided elsewhere until the passage of Public Law 94-142. Special education is a relatively new field that needs to continue to research and develop appropriate placement and educational options for individuals with disabilities. Education in residential schools will continue to serve children with special needs, as it is an option for placement. This option must continue, as there is "not a one size fits all" option available to meet the unique educational needs and family needs of individuals with disabilities.

It has been said that what one generation tolerates, the next generation accepts. In terms of special and residential educational services, this has not been the case. Due to the efforts of early advocates, the provision of educational services to individuals with special needs has greatly advanced. However, the need to continue advancing the services provided to individuals with disabilities must continue.

Terms & Concepts

Activities of Daily Living Skills: Activities of daily living skills (ADLs) are skills that are considered essential for self care. ADLs include but are not limited to: mobility, communication, toileting, grooming, and leisure skills.

Association of Retarded Citizens (ARC): The ARC was formed over 40 years ago by a small group of parents and other advocates to increase the well being of individuals with mental retardation. Currently, the ARC provides world wide supports and services, across the life span to individuals with disabilities and developmental disabilities.

Free Appropriate Pubic Education (FAPE): FAPE is a legal requirement that prescribes that individuals with disabilities are educated in the least restrictive environment (LRE).

Individuals with Disabilities of Education Act 2004 (IDEA 2004): IDEA 2004 is a federal law that continues to mandate special education and related services to individuals with disabilities age birth to 21 years.

Individualized Education Plan (IEP): The IEP serves as the "road-map" of the why, when, how, and where of activities and services for the individual with a disability. The IEP is an individualized program for persons, three to 21 years of age, which must be developed for the individual identified as having a disability by a team. The IEP must have key components that communicate the needs of the individual and the services necessary for the individual to participate in the educational environment.

Informed Consent: Informed consent is defined as making clear to the participants involved in research the purpose, duration, procedures, rights and consequences of participating or withdrawing from research, potential risks or adverse effects, benefits and incentives for participating, confidentiality, and who to contact about the research.

Least Restrictive Environment: An individual with disabilities who receives free, appropriate public education designed to meet his or her individual needs with non-disabled peers to the maximum extent appropriate is considered to be placed in the least restrictive environment.

Normalization: Normalization is a principle to make life and living conditions for individuals with disabilities as typical as possible to the non-disabled.

Public Law 94-142: In 1975, the Education for All Handicapped Children Act Public Law 94-142 (P.L. 94-142) was established to provide free appropriate public education to individuals with disabilities. P.L. 94-142 has undergone reauthorizations by Congress and is currently referred to as the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 2004 (IDEA 2004).

Residential Care: Residential care is based upon the concept of the boarding school. Typically, the facility provides room, board, and educational services to the individuals residing there.

Vocational Training: Vocational training is designed to provide job skills that are non-academic and related to a trade or occupation.

Bibliography

Bain, K.J. (1998). Children with severe disabilities: Options for residential care. The Medical Journal of Australia, 169, 598-600. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/xmas98/bain/bain.html

Beck, S. (2002). Middle East and Africa to 1875 . Goleta, CA: World Peach Communications.

Cruickshank, W. & Johnson, G. (Eds.)(1958). Education of exceptional children and youth. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall, Inc.

Gilliam, J. & Easterbrooks, S. (1997). Educating children who are deaf or hard of hearing: Residential life, ASL, and deaf culture . Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.cec.sped.org/Content/NavigationMenu/NewsIssues/TeachingLearningCenter/ExceptionalityArea/Educating_Children_W2.htm

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Amendments 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq . (2004).

New York State Archives. (n.d.). The greatest reform school in the world: A guide to the records of the New York House of Refuge . Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://www.archives.nysed.gov/a/research/res_topics_ed_reform.shtml

Perkins School for the Blind (n.d.) History. Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://www.perkins.org/section.php?id=53

Peterson, N. (1987). Early intervention for handicapped and at-risk children: An introduction to early childhood special education. Denver: Love Publishing Co.

Schwartz, C. (2005). Parental involvement in residential care and perceptions of their offspring's life satisfaction in residential facilities for adults with intellectual disability. Journal of Intellectual & Developmental Disability, 30 , 146-155. Retrieved June 30, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=18001723&site=ehost-live

Smith D. & Luckasson, R. (1995). Introduction to special education: Teaching in an age of challenge. (2nd ed.). Boson: Allyn and Bacon.

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (2005). Children and Disability in Transition in CEE/CIS and Baltic States . Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://ideas.repec.org/p/ucf/innins/innins05-20.html

Zeller, M., & Köngeter, S. (2012). Education in residential care and in school: A social-pedagogical perspective on the educational attainment of young women leaving care. Children & Youth Services Review, 34, 1190-1196. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=74497918&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Bain, K.J. (1998). Children with severe disabilities: Options for residential care. The Medical Journal of Australia, 169, 598-600. Retrieved June 30, 2007, from http://www.mja.com.au/public/issues/xmas98/bain/bain.html

Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), Amendments 20 U.S.C. § 1400 et seq . (2004).

New York House of Refuge (n.d.). Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://www.archives.nysed.gov/a/researchroom/rr_ed_reform_history.shtml

Perkins School for the Blind (n.d.) Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://www.perkins.org/section.php?id=53

United Nations Children's Fund (UNICEF) (2005). Children and Disability in Transition in CEE/CIS and Baltic States . Retrieved June 15, 2007, from http://ideas.repec.org/p/ucf/innins/innins05-20.html