School Culture and School Reform Efforts

School culture generally refers to the values, practices, and actions of any particular school community, including the students, teachers, administrators, and related stakeholders, such as parents. School culture came to be defined as an essential contributing factor in school reform efforts, as it explains differences in the success in implementing some types of reforms across schools, and in enhancing student performance. It can enhance reform or be a barrier to change, depending on the nature of the culture of the school, and how thoroughly cultural issues have been considered in the reform and implementation processes.

Keywords Administrators; Anthropology; Collegiality; Cultural Capital; Education Reform; Leadership; Professionalization of Teaching; School-Based Management; School Culture; School Reform; Social Capital; Stakeholders

Overview

What is School Culture?

School culture generally refers to the values, practices, and actions of any particular school community, including the students, teachers, administrators, and related stakeholders, such as parents. The extent to which any one of those groups is involved in determining or contributing to school culture is likely to vary from school to school, but all are involved. School culture can be viewed as either negative or positive; the former meaning it is a barrier to positive change and the latter meaning it either contributes to increased productivity on the part of participants (teachers and students especially) and /or contributes to increased satisfaction on the part of participants. In essence, school culture moves away from short-term targeted issues such as test scores and achievement, and is instead about the people in and around the school; the ways in which they relate to one another, group expectations about the way things are done, and the ultimate outcomes of their actions.

School culture came to be defined as an essential contributing factor in school reform efforts, as it explains differences in the success in implementing some types of reforms across schools, and in enhancing student performance. It can enhance reform or be a barrier to change, depending on the nature of the culture of the school, and how thoroughly cultural issues have been considered in the reform and implementation processes.

The Center for Improving School Culture (2007) lists several more-specific definitions of school culture, reflecting some variations among theorists on the subject. School culture, broadly defined, encompasses everything that happens within and relating to the school, and the attitudes and responses of everyone within the greater school community to those events.

A Model for School Reform

At a more theoretical level, the concept of school culture as described by Deal and Petersen is seen as a model to approaching school change, from among five possible model options, including:

• A human resources model, which focuses on the competencies and needs of educators;

• A structural model, focusing on how schools are structured and operate;

• A political model, based on the relationships of powerful stakeholders in the school community;

• A free market model, emphasizing school choice and free market principles; and

• A school culture model, and anthropology-based model that considers a holistic view of the school including all stakeholders.

Any one of the above school culture models encompasses elements of all the other models as well; making it greater than the sum of the parts.

Like any culture, Deal and Peterson suggest the culture of a school is "the character of a school as it reflects deep patterns of values, beliefs and traditions that have been formed over the course of its history" (p. 7). That character is then revealed or disseminated among community participants through "symbolic language and expressive action."

Why is School Culture Important?

Deal and Peterson note that "institutions work best when people are committed to certain commonly held values and are bonded to one another" (p. 9). To the extent that the school community can experience that commonality and bonding, it is thought that the performance of its members can be improved. If teachers, staff, students, administrators, and parents are striving towards common ideals and the rituals, daily actions, and rhetoric of the school community reflects that striving, then the school is regarded as having a "positive" culture, which is considered likely to enhance performance and overall satisfaction of its stakeholders.

Deal and Peterson suggest that productivity, which might be defined in terms of student achievement, student learning, teacher satisfaction, or in some other way, is related to certain elements of strong institutional culture. In schools, they specify that a positive culture involves:

• Strong values

• An emphasis on basic skills for all students

• High expectations for all students

• Strong leadership

• Shared beliefs throughout the school

• Good role models, and

• An atmosphere that is orderly, while not oppressive.

According to Boyd, other elements that enhance cultural internalizing are:

• Common language

• Criteria for inclusion and exclusion: clear boundaries

• Ideology

• Power and status structure

• Rewards and punishments, and

• Rules for understanding relationships

These positive elements, they state, can lead to better outcomes, such as

• Improved test scores,

• Improved morale of teachers,

• Reduced staff turnover, and

• Community satisfaction with the program.

However, Deal & Peterson note that in order to see such improvements, in addition to a strong school culture, "instructional curricular and economic systems must run smoothly" (p. 88).

Fullan, however, who has written extensively on leadership and change, recommends assessing improvement in terms of how well educational leaders have been groomed, prepared and encouraged to continue and sustain the process of improvement, and to prepare other leaders.

History of the School Culture Concept

School culture came to be studied in depth during discussion of education reform in what became known as the second wave of reform policy-in which teachers began to be viewed as critical participants in the reform process.

Bates describes the history of educational reform theory throughout the twentieth century, indicating that theories moved from a bureaucratic, leadership-focused model, to a more inclusive model, with a greater focus on culture than authoritarianism. He writes, "It is this dialogue between institutional and personal authority, the battle between bureaucracy and culture, which has characterized the debate over the nature, purpose and effectiveness of leadership in education for the past century" (p. 156). He goes on to describe the school as a "nexus" for cultural struggle both within the school community and reflecting the larger community within which the school operates, and cautions that improvement in schools can only occur if the interconnecting relationships among all participants, communities, and inter-related cultures, are considered in the context of all the others, and a climate of continual learning is understood throughout.

Deal and Peterson concur that it is essential to understand both the school and the local community culture, and how they interact. And they emphasize the challenges in addressing school cultural reforms. Any kind of culture, they report, is "deeply rooted" by nature, and thus must be considered carefully, and respected for its strengths, before introducing elements of change.

Bates describes schools as operating under two distinct pressures: the pressure of market forces, and economic pressure to improve, against the pressure of existing school cultures that may be resistant to change. He recommends, therefore, a comprehensive understanding of the forces acting upon schools and their stakeholders.

An Anthropological Perspective

Bates argues that Fullan and Deal and Peterson brought many ideas about leadership and executive or corporate culture into the realm of education, but suggests that an even deeper, more anthropological understanding of the meaning of culture is necessary to truly understand how school culture can lead to change. He notes also that while school culture can certainly be influenced by its leaders and staff, it cannot be controlled by them, and that an anthropological perspective of culture is more all-encompassing, much more complex and interrelated with other factors, and more about understanding than control. He references the work of Bowles and Gintis, and Bourdieu, relating school culture to national culture, and issues of race, class, social capital, and cultural capital. Fullan's work also emphasizes the importance of context, and levels of context (including state, district, community) in understanding and implementing reform in schools.

Various theorists (and failed reform efforts along the way) suggested that reform imposed from above may be less successful than reform implemented by teachers themselves. Subsequent investigations into school culture, and the possibility of changing an individual school's culture, began to be explored.

Other Models of School Reform

Hess describes three models of school improvement:

• Technical transfer, in which the knowledge of researchers and academics is passed along to schools;

• Professionalization, which emphasizes teacher knowledge and power; and

• Client empowerment, in which parents and the community take on the authority to change schools, as in Chicago's school-based management programs.

Several useful sources defining culture and why it is important to consider school culture when considering school reform, are cited and described by Boyd. She reports that, among staff, professional collaboration, affiliative or collegial relationships and feelings of efficacy and self-determination are essential to developing a "learning community," in which both students and staff are committed to a process of continuous learning and improvement. Fullan agrees that "collaborative schools or "professional learning communities" are essential for success" in reforming schools.

Muijs, Harris, Chapman, Stoll, & Russ report that a number of other factors are also implicated in successful reform, including a blame-free atmosphere allowing constructive criticism; coherent policies and rules; collaboration among staff and other members of the community; and high expectations for all students.

Kelleher and Levinson report that "for culture to change in a school or school district, teachers, principals and other staff must relate to each other in different ways and actually do something differently" (para. 10). This is challenging, but the payoff is high, as "cultural change in work activities is deep and lasting. It requires time and team building, often through recruiting people who have a shared vision and dedication to implement it" (para. 11). Kelleher and Levinson report that it seems easier to build a culture of shared decision-making than one of shared accountability. Some administrators, they note, are breaking large urban schools into smaller school communities, but they emphasize that this will likely only succeed if the same principles are applied to culture changes as in large schools.

Further Insights

How Can School Culture Improve?

Peterson and Deal report that by introducing new rituals, symbols, language and action, culture within a school can be changed although change may be gradual, and may differ from school to school.

Wagner summarizes various studies of culture-based reform and concludes that the following factors must also be in place for reform of school culture to be effective:

• The culture must be assessed; and participants must feel they have efficacy and self-determination around the reform process.

• Analysis of the needs of the school must occur.

• Only a few areas should be targeted for improvement at a time; not all change can occur at once.

• The process should be closely monitored and adjusted if not successful.

Reforming the Roles of Stakeholders

The Role of Administrators

Early models of reform (technical transfer) ascribed authority to academics, principals, and other administrators, as the arbiters of good management policy. In this model, those authority figures were given the role of assessing what reforms were needed, disseminating information as necessary, and implementing reforms.

Challenges arose as teachers resisted the imposition of rules from above, and school cultures often proved immutable. Muijs et al. report that distributed demographic forms of leadership, rather than a single leader, have been found to be most successful in encouraging reform. This led to the development of more teacher-based models of change.

The Role of Teachers

Professionalization of teaching became a rallying point in school reform, and teachers began to be perceived as being at least as essential to the change process as leaders, administrators, and other authority figures in the education process. Muijs et al. summarize findings on the effectiveness of creating "learning communities" among teachers in a school, and reflect that such communities can lead to longer-term sustained change than merely addressing single-target goals such as raising test scores. They may also reduce teacher turnover in low-performing schools, as teachers feel empowered and able to positively influence school culture and outcomes.

To become effectively engaged in the reform process, however, teachers must feel that their efforts are effective, that the intervention is effective, that they are involved in a learning community (with their peers), and that they are supported in their efforts by the school community. Continuous professional development-linked to school and embedded in the workplace is also essential for success.

Throughout the literature, collegiality (meaning teachers working together and sharing knowledge) and clear communication are mentioned as essential elements for teacher engagement in the reform process.

The Role of Students

Students can benefit from the change process, and may also be influential regarding successful implementation or failure. Wagner recommends that students (and parents) be informed about the reform process, be familiar with the expectations and goals of the school, and be invited to participate to enhance prospects of reform.

Boyd reports that "Just as the perceptions, attitudes, beliefs, and values of teachers impact change efforts, student beliefs and attitudes influence school improvement. Students must believe that they are respected as persons and that they are tied to the school." She notes that alienation and boredom can be reasons for student resistance, and that some students experience conflict between their school and home cultures, which can impede engagement in school culture and activities. If their efforts are recognized, however, and they feel that they have some impact on school culture and outcomes, they are more likely to engage in school processes.

Bissett, Markham, and Aveyard studied 25,000 students across the United Kingdom, and concluded that a positive school culture can reduce student drug and alcohol use. That, in turn, may contribute to better outcomes for students in those schools.

Peer culture is also a critical element in accepting change, or internalizing school culture as well, says Boyd. In addition, staff attention to student engagement in culture is essential. If students feel that the school's culture supports them, they are more likely to support and enhance that culture themselves.

The Role of Parents & the Community

Parents are also inherently involved in a school's culture, although the degree of their involvement may be influenced by the school, class and race issues, or other contextual variables. Boyd reports that school culture often reflects aspects of local culture, and schools must focus on the community outside the school as well as inside it when considering reforms.

Parents are considered to be essential to the change process in the more inclusive models of change, but not as critical in others. Muijs et al. describe varying involvement levels of parents in low-income schools in detail, reporting that some low-income schools attempt to reduce parent involvement as it can be considered detrimental to the effectiveness of the school. Schools in higher-income areas report positive effects of increased parental involvement. They conclude that although parents are inevitably involved, effective reform may require that parents be involved in culture change or reform somewhat later in the process in some schools than others, depending on the context of the community.

The rest of the community, including taxpayers and school board members, is also inherently involved in school culture. Boyd summarizes other authors who suggest that schools must be responsive to the community, and that those communities may or may not support reform efforts, and thereby have some influence. Like other aspects of cultural change, involving the community can be successful if it is inclusive, informative, and collegial as possible.

Conclusion

School culture is now widely accepted as a necessary element to consider when attempting to implement educational reforms. Although clear data on the impact of cultural change are difficult to find, some evidence shows that culture can be effectively changed, most often through a gradual and inclusive process, and can lead to improved outcomes in terms of student achievement, student behavior, staff turnover, staff satisfaction, leadership training, and school coherence.

Change is likely to be most successful if all stakeholders are informed about the change process and share a united vision of what the end results will be. Many theorists believe that early involvement of stakeholders at all levels can increase engagement in the process, while others suggest that some stakeholders (e.g., parents) may be brought in later in the process for maximum success. Continued engagement of all stakeholders in the process, with ongoing collaboration and communication, will help to develop the traditions, actions, language, and stories necessary to maintain the reformed culture. These help to maintain awareness of the actions necessary to maintain positive changes. If those positive actions are enhanced by rewards or incentives for participation, a school can maintain interest in, and support for, reforms as the process continues.

The onset of the COVID-19 pandemic in 2020 further complicated school culture, as such initiatives as remote learning disrupted the day-to-day lives of students, parents, and academic professionals around the world. However, some experts saw this as a time of great change and urged policymakers to use lessons learned from the pandemic to inform future education reform.

Terms & Concepts

Administrators: Here, administrators include school principals, vice principals, superintendents, and others who have policy-making and supervisory roles within an educational system.

Anthropology: Anthropology is the study of humans and humanity, and emphasizes long-term, immersed, ethnographic study with attention to context.

Collegiality: Collegiality refers to the inclusion of teachers in decision-making processes regarding school reforms.

Cultural Capital: Cultural capital is a term meaning any knowledge, education, or skill that gives one a higher status in society.

Educational Reform: Educational reform refers to the process of attempting to improve the educational process and/or administration of schools.

School-Based Management: School-based management is a reform concept focusing on the management of schools by parents, teachers, and other local stakeholders, rather than managed from above by other authorities.

Social Capital: Social capital refers to any resources gained from participation in particular social groups, such as neighborhoods, schools, communities.

Professionalization of Teaching: Professionalization of teaching refers to the idea that teachers, as a group, should be respected for their professional expertise just as doctors, lawyers, and other professionals; and that they should have a decisive role in determining and directing school outcomes, based on their knowledge and experience (rather than being directed by administrators, academics, or policy-makers.

Bibliography

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Fullan, M. (1999.) Change Forces: The Sequel. Philadelphia, PA: Falmer Press.

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Suggested Reading

Fullan, M.G. (1991). The new meaning of educational change (2nd ed.). New York: Teachers College Press.

Fullan et al. (2000.) The Jossey-Bass reader on educational leadership. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass Publishers, 2000.

Johnston, J.A., Bickel, W.E., & Wallace, Jr., R.C. (1990). Building and sustaining change in the culture of secondary schools. Educational Leadership, 47 , 46-48. Retrieved October 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete.

Krueger, J. P. & Parish, R. (1982). We're making the same mistakes: Myth and legend in school improvement. Planning and Changing, 13 , 131-140.

Patterson, J.L., Purkey, S.C., & Parker, J.V. (1986). Productive school systems for a nonrational world. Alexandria, VA: Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Sarason, S.B. (1982). Culture of the school and the problem of change (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.

Sarason, S.B. (1990). The predictable failure of educational reform - Can we change course before it's too late? San Francisco: Jossey Bass.

Sergiovanni, T.J. & Corbally, J.E. (1984). Leadership and organizational culture. Chicago, IL: University of Illinois Press.