School Desegregation

Segregation is the act of separating racial, ethnic, or gender groups by designating certain public spaces – such as schools or buses – for the use of one racial, ethnic, or gender group alone. Integration is the act of equally incorporating different racial, ethnic, and gender groups in public spaces. In the United States, the discussion of integration has often centered on racial integration in schools. Brown v. Board of Education and the Civil Rights Act of 1964 made major strides against de jure segregation, though in many districts de facto segregation still continues. In recent years, research has actually shown an increase in de facto segregation.

Keywords Brown v. Board of Education; De Facto Segregation; De Jure Segregation; Desegregation; Integration; Plessy vs. Ferguson; Re-segregation; Segregation

Education & the Law > School Desegregation

Overview

Segregation is the act of separating racial, ethnic, or gender groups by designating certain public spaces – such as schools or buses – for the use of one racial, ethnic, or gender group alone. Integration is the act of equally incorporating different racial, ethnic, and gender groups in public spaces. While there are many spheres in which segregation and integration can occur, this article will focus on racial segregation and integration in American public schools.

The fight against discrimination and segregation began in the South. While discrimination in the North manifested itself in school closures and under-funding, its southern counterpart was more flagrant, with Jim Crow laws preventing whites and blacks from sharing public resources like schools and buses. Jim Crow laws were an elaborate system of customs and laws in the post-Reconstruction South meant to separate blacks and whites in daily life.

Plessy v. Ferguson

Plessy v. Ferguson (1896) was the first significant legal case in which an African American challenged Jim Crow laws. Homer Plessy was a black man who was arrested under these laws for sitting in the white section of a Louisiana train. Plessy asserted that being forbidden to sit with white passengers was a violation of his Thirteenth Amendment rights and especially his Fourteenth Amendment rights, which call for equal protection of all citizens under the law (Robertson, 2006, p. 796).

The court ruled against Plessy, saying

…laws permitting, and even requiring, their separation, in places where they are liable to be brought into contact, do not necessarily imply the inferiority of either race to the other, and have been generally, if not universally, recognized as within the competency of the state legislatures in the exercise of their police power. The most common instance of this is connected with the establishment of separate schools for white and colored children, which have been held to be a valid exercise of the legislative power even by courts of States where the political rights of the colored race have been longest and most earnestly enforced (as cited in Robertson, 2006, p. 796).

The "separate but equal" doctrine set forth in Plessy v. Ferguson was not challenged in the court again until 1951 with Brown vs. Board of Education.

Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka, Kansas

Brown v. Board of Education was a legal suit filed against the Topeka school board by Oliver Brown on behalf of his daughter, Linda, who, instead of attending the elementary school in her neighborhood, was bussed 21 blocks away from her home to attend an African-American elementary school. Brown lost initially; the judge ruled that white and "colored" schools were essentially equal in their offerings to children, so no child was suffering discrimination (McGrane, 2004).

But Brown persisted, and the case became the heart of a cluster of suits that would eventually rise to the Supreme Court. A number of black parents from other states – Delaware, Kansas, South Carolina, Virginia, Washington, D.C. – joined him in suing for their children to attend white schools. And like Brown, they too were initially denied the right by a judge who cited the "separate but equal" doctrine first delineated in the landmark civil rights case, Plessy v. Ferguson (McGrane, 2004).

The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) soon became involved in the Brown suit, assigning to the case its legal director of 15 years, Thurgood Marshall. He began by attacking segregation in post-graduate schools before working down to secondary and elementary education. In 1954, the Supreme Court handed down its unanimous decision. "In the field of education," wrote Justice Earl Warren, "the doctrine of 'separate but equal' has no place. Separate educational facilities are inherently unequal" (as cited in McGrane, 2004, p. 1).

The Brown decision was directed at ending de jure, or lawfully imposed, segregation – not de facto, or "in practice" segregation. The Brown ruling affected southern schools more than northern schools, as most southern schools were practicing de jure segregation. Most northern states, however, were practicing de facto segregation – a more subtle form created by the choices of individuals and communities about matters like where they will live, shop, work, or go to school (Chapman, 2005 p. 33).

Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg

Though the ruling did end de jure segregation, it did not end it immediately. There was confusion and debate after the ruling as to how individual school systems should go about complying with the new law. In 1970 the Supreme Court handed down the Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education decision, a busing and integration plan for Charlotte-Mecklenburg, North Carolina, that would eventually be adopted across the country (Armor, 2006). Though the Swann ruling helped solve the problem in the south, it took another decision, Keyes v. Denver School District No. 1, to achieve comprehensive desegregation in the north.

Economic Factors

By the time of Swann, African-American parents in northern cities were already deeply embattled with their own school boards over de facto segregation. The 1950's and 60s were prosperous times for big cities and the populations living in them. Job growth in urban factories and warehouses drew many African-Americans into the cities. With the increase in wealth, urban schools were able to acquire better teachers and more resources, making them considerably superior to rural schools. In some cases, urban African-American schools even outperformed similar white schools (Chapman, 2005, p. 32).

But the late 1960s saw a precipitous decline in industry and many urban economies. Factories and plants were downsized, hurting cities with predominantly working class populations. Workers holding only high school diplomas or vocational degrees were increasingly unemployed. As urban economies declined, cities allotted less money to their schools. One way school boards dealt with shrinking budgets was by closing schools in minority neighborhoods while reducing funding to the remaining schools in those neighborhoods, causing overcrowding and diminishing the quality of education for minority students. The combination of the deterioration of the schools and rise of the civil rights movement led the first black parents in northern cities to challenge their school districts in court (Chapman, 2005).

But because de facto segregation was more difficult to prove in court, parents in many cities – like Detroit, Boston, Chicago, Milwaukee, Kansas City, Oklahoma City, St. Louis – would be in litigation for nearly thirty years (Chapman, 2005). One major step in bringing equal opportunity education to both northern and southern schools was the passage of the 1964 Civil Rights Act.

The 1964 Civil Rights Act

In 1963, nine years after the Supreme Court ruled in favor of Brown, President John F. Kennedy set forth a civil rights bill that would end de jure segregation in public schools and public spaces and protect the rights of African American voters. Kennedy would not live to see passage of the bill, but his successor, President Lyndon B. Johnson, signed it into law in a nationally televised ceremony on July 2, 1964. The act allowed the attorney general to sue for the desegregation of colleges and public schools. It banned segregation in public gathering places such as parks and museums run by state and local governments and made it unlawful for federally assisted programs to discriminate against race, color, and national origin. The act also gave more protection to the rights of minority voters and forbade employers from discriminating against workers and job candidates (Fonte, 1997).

Resegregation

Despite the progress made in the 60s and 70s, some experts say integration suffered a setback in the 80s. Two studies have revealed that resegregation is occurring in some school districts; one looked at schools nationwide ("New Study," 2001) while the second looked a resegregation in in districts formerly under a court order to desegregate, once that court order was lifted (Reardon, Grewal, Kalogrides, & Greenberg, 2012).

The first study, done by the Civil Rights Project at Harvard University, examined schools nationwide during the 1998-99 year. The study found that in southern states the percentage of black students in predominantly white schools declined steadily between 1988 and 1998 – though the level of segregation in these states is still less than what it was at the end of the 60s (28 percentage points less in 1999 than in 1969) ("New Study," 2001).

While findings concerning students of color were telling, the most startling data pertained to Hispanic pupils, who were more likely to attend minority schools than black students (Zehr, 2001). The segregation of Latinos – whose population in this country between 1970 and 1999 swelled by 245% – increased 13.5% between 1970 and 1999 ("New Study," 2001). During the 1998-99 school year, 70.2% of African-American students attended schools with mostly minority students, up from 66% in 1991-92, and up from 63% in 1980-81. But the number of Hispanics attending predominantly minority schools was even higher: 76% in 1998-99 and 73% in 1991-92. These figures constitute what Gary Orfield, co-director of the Harvard study, referred to as resegregation. "Segregation is actually increasing," Orfield was quoted as saying, in "Ignoring that reality leads to adoption of education policies that punish people who haven't had equal educational opportunities…it's a direct threat to the future of a multiracial society" (as cited in Zehr, 2001, p. 16).

Increase in Public School Segregation

White students, it was found, were most commonly separated away from other ethnic groups. Most attended public schools where at least 80% of the enrollment was Caucasian ("New Study," 2001). While segregation in public schools increased during the 90s, it was even more prevalent in private schools. Between 1997 and 1998, 78% of American private school students were white, while most black students attended schools that were only 34% white. At the same time, 64% of public school students were white, and most African-American students attended schools that were 33% white. In addition, white students who attended private schools were more racially isolated than white students who attend public schools. Forty-seven percent of whites attended public schools that were between 90% and 100% Caucasian, while 64% of Caucasian private school students attended schools where whites made up between 90% and 100% of the student body ("Private Schools," 2002).

Poverty was also found to be associated with symptoms of educational inequality such as poor test performance. Most Hispanic and African-American students were found to attend schools with more than twice as many disadvantaged students as normally attend schools with Caucasian students ("New Study," 2001).

The Harvard study concluded that whites have become the most isolated of all the races. Orfield expressed concern for African-American students, as the average black student attends schools where 55% of students are black – and for Latino students, who attend schools where 53% of the students are Hispanic. These schools, argued Orfield, are almost always inferior to white-majority schools in "every dimension" (as cited in Zehr, 2001, p.16).

A more recent study (Reardon et al., 2012) by researchers from Stanford University looked at resegregation in 483 school districts that had been under a court-supervised desegregation order in 1990; the authors believe their study included all districts with at least 2,000 students that were under a court-supervised desegregation order as of 1990, including 96 non-Southern school districts. The Stanford study found that when districts are released from desegregation orders, they tend to become desegregated, with the greatest resegregation occurring in the elementary school grades. Resegregation was also associated with the size of the school districts (more resegregation in larger districts), in districts with large numbers of African American students, and in districts with a high degree of residential segregation.

One possible reason for resegregation is the change in the nation's political climate that began in the 1980's, as the social science research on which Brown relied came under fire, along with conflicting data produced in research done after Brown. When hearings were held by a House of Representatives subcommittee to examine how desegregation and busing initiatives might have positive effects, the hearings didn't yield conclusions about long-term effects of desegregation, but they determined which studies and data were reliable. Not surprisingly, judges at both the federal and district levels became less inclined to rule in favor of segregation cases in the 90s (Chapman, 2005, p. 37).

Resegregation, writes Orfield, can be blamed partly on the federal judicial system, which has lagged in its commitment to Brown. But the public must also shoulder some responsibility. Many families choose to live in neighborhoods full of people of their own skin color. The 1960s saw the beginnings of "white flight," a movement in which many whites left the cities for suburbia (Zehr, 2001).

Charter Schools

Charter schools, i.e., publicly-funded schools exempt from certain and and local regulations, have become increasing common in the United States. According to the National Center for Education Statistics, In the 2010-2011 school year, 41 states and the District Columbia had passed legislation allowing the creation of charter schools. Growth of charter schools has been rapid: in 2011 1.8 million students were enrolled in 5,300 charter schools, a marked increase from the 0.3 million students enrolled in charter schools in 1999. Despite this dramatic increase, however,only 2.5% of public school students attend charter schools, with five states accounting for most of the enrollment: California, Florida, Texas, Arizona, and Michigan (Frankenberg & Siegel-Hawley, 2011).

Although charter schools are not allowed to discriminate on the basis of race or ethnicity, some researchers believe that charter schools in practice are increasing segregation.Frankenberg and Siegel-Hawley (2011) found that charter schools tend to increase segregation of African American students (nationally, 70% of African American charter school students attend a racially isolated school, defined as a school whose student body is at least 90% drawn from under-represented minority groups; this is double the percentage of African American students overall who attend racially isolated schools. Half of Latino charter school students also attend racially isolated schools, while data from some states in the South and Midwest suggest that charter schools are allowing White students to attend schools with primarily or entirely White enrollment (white flight) rather than attending more integrated non-charter public schools.

Recent Court Decisions

In June 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court handed down two rulings concerning de facto school segregation. Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Public Schools. In Parents, the Seattle School District was sued by a parents' group for using race as a major factor in deciding which students would be granted entrance into the city's most popular, and oversubscribed, high schools. In Meredith, Jefferson County Public Schools were sued by a parent for using race as a major determinant when assigning children to elementary schools and ruling on transfer requests. Both plaintiffs contended that the school districts violated the Equal Protection clause of the Fourteenth Amendment.

Though the policies were meant to uphold the districts' commitments to diversity, the Supreme Court ruled that using racial classifications as a "tie-breaker" for admission was not directed toward a "compelling government interest," since student body diversity is constituted of other factors than race alone (e.g. gender, family income, religion, life experiences, etc.). The Court further found that the districts' policies were not sufficiently "narrowly tailored" to promote diversity since:

• They only distinguished between white and non-white or black and non-black students, and

• The districts had failed to identify the level of diversity needed to obtain the educational benefits diversity is claimed to confer, relying instead on the districts' overall racial composition as a guide.

The court ruled in favor of the plaintiffs, with Chief Justice John Roberts succinctly concluding his opinion, writing, "The way to stop discrimination on the basis of race is to stop discriminating on the basis of race" ("Parents Involved", 2007, p. 41).

Although the Supreme Court ruling in Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No.1 and Meredith v. Jefferson County Public Schools meant that school districts could no longer use race-based lotteries, or more explicit race-based selection methods, to achieve racial balance in magnet schools (public schools organized around a theme and drawing students from a wide geographic area), some large school districts, such as those in Los Angeles, Chicago, and Baltimore County, continue to operate a number of magnet schools to promote diversity and excellence within the school system (Fleming, 2012). Consideration of factors such as economic background is allowed in student selection and placement, and these factors can indirectly help increase racial diversity within schools. For instance, Chicago sorts applicants to competitive schools based on characteristics of their home census tract, such as family income and percent of families owning their own home, with students competing only with others within their tract. The Wake County School District in North Carolina also uses economic rather than racial factors in their attempts to increase diversity, and has enjoyed some success, as affluent families are voluntarily enrolling their children in the county's publicschools. However, the county's success may not be replicable inother districts; the county has always been somewhat affluent, and its plethora of magnet schools – not its home schools – have proved to be the strongest attraction ("Still Separate," 2007).

Further Insights

Recommendations of the Harvard Civil Rights Project

Researchers involved in the Harvard Civil Rights Project study made numerous recommendations on how to promote integration and improve conditions in minority schools. Included in these recommendations was the development of an exchange program for teachers in urban and suburban schools, as well as training programs for instructors on running multi-ethnic classrooms ("New Study," 2001). Researchers called for the study and reform of current educational and housing practices in the interest of arresting resegregation. In addition, the study urged the development of a system allowing students to transfer between districts with relative ease (Zehr, 2001).

The researchers also suggested expanding the federal government's magnet school program, but adding certain desegregation provisions. Recommendations were also made for the creation of "two-way" bilingual schools, wherein students with Spanish as a first language and students with English as a first language attend classes together to become fluent in both languages (Zehr, 2001). The study called for an increase in the number of professionals qualified to teach desegregation and race relations at the state education department levels. Finally, it called for surveys to be done of schools practicing interracial education in order to document merits of the practice ("New Study," 2001).

Other experts have made suggestions for improving conditions at minority schools. John H. Jackson, director of education for the NAACP, recommends reducing class sizes and supplying city schools with highly qualified instructors (Zehr, 2001).

Promoting Integration through Teaching

Much can also be done by teachers. A number of college and high school courses address segregation and integration, often as part of a larger subject such as the history of public education, U.S. history, or African-American history. Some schools have broadened the term "integration" to embrace not only individuals of different races, ethnicities, and religions, but also of different sexual orientations.

The following are examples of elementary and secondary level teaching being done to promote integration:

• Through a cooperative project with the Benton Harbor Public Library in Michigan, elementary students from 90% black Benton Harbor public schools met weekly with mostly white children from nearby Bridgman. The children painted self-portraits of one another in a highly successful project that taught interracial awareness (Knuth, 2002).

• High school students in a course about the third world were asked to write "initial impression" essays on photographs from India. Next, the instructor led a discussion about the pictures, the students' first impressions of them, and the possible societal, personal, and cultural roots of their opinions. The exercise was designed to make students more aware of the difference between sensitive first impressions and stereotypes (Lintner, 2005, p. 34).

• The Southern Poverty Law Center's web project recommends a number of tolerance and racial awareness projects for all grades. One, called "Mix It Up!" asks students to not sit with their usual friends during one lunch period, but instead sit with a different group of students. In another project, lower-grade children (grades 1-3) make illustrated books about the meaning of friendship and the qualities of a good friend. Afterward, the teacher leads a discussion about how it feels to be new in class, how people feel when they meet someone who speaks with an unusual accent or whose appearance is quite different, and how to be friends with someone who has different interests or a different family background ("A New Friend," n.d.).

Viewpoints

Many experts agree with the conclusions drawn from the Harvard Civil Rights Study, but some differ with Orfield on the causes of resegregation. Christine H. Rossell, professor of political science at Boston University writes, "We are in complete agreement that there is something wrong with a society in which people of one color live in one place, and people of another color live in another place" (as cited in Zehr, 2001 p. 16). But, she argues, origins of the problem can be traced back to principles of desegregation espoused by Orfield. Initial plans to end segregation – such as busing – led to white flight and caused many white parents to enroll their children in predominantly white schools that were not busing blacks. Rossell also argues that the study failed to point out that the lower birthrate among whites leads in part to a decrease in the ratio of white to minority students (Zehr, 2001).

The Achievement Gap

While Brown was widely lauded as the end to a long period of institutionalized racism and discrimination, it also has its critics. Some say it did little to improve the nagging "achievement gap" suffered by African-American students, who continue to lag behind Caucasian students in test scores and overall academic performance. But this disparity, says Armor (2006, p. 42), is detectable in African-American children as early as age 3 (as early as it can be detected), two years before the children even enter school. Studies have shown, Armor continues, that the achievement gap is determined overwhelmingly by influences at home. What factors count much more towards a child's cognitive development than race are:

• Parents' IQ

• Cognitive timulation/instruction (usually by parents but could be others)

• Emotional support/nurturance

• Parents' educational attainment

• Family income and poverty status

• Family structure: marital status, number of parents

• Mother's age when child born

• Number of siblings

• Child's nutrition (including breast feeding)

• Child's birth weight (Armor, 2006, p. 42).

Concern over the achievement gap has led to increased educational funding and massive early intervention initiatives. Since 1965 the federal program Head Start has served 23 million preschool-aged, academically at-risk children from disadvantaged families (Shipley & Oborn, 1996). In 2001, President George W. Bush launched No Child Left Behind (NCLB), a policy demanding that all students meet specific proficiency standards by 2014. Though test scores in many schools have improved, Armor (2006, p. 45) cautions that it is still too early to know if NCLB will be a success. Strategies developed for the program seem to be increasing achievement levels ("NCLB is Working," n.d.).

Terms & Concepts

Brown v. Board of Education: A 1954 Supreme Court ruling that ended sanctioned segregation in public schools.

De Facto Segregation: A practice prevalent in the northern states that segregated students through policy and funding choices made by individual school districts and communities.

De Jure Segregation: A practice prevalent in the southern states in which people of different races were kept separate by law.

Desegregation: A push to end segregation and racially integrate public schools that began in the 50s.

Integration: Incorporating people of different races and ethnicities into society as equals.

Plessy v. Ferguson: An 1896 court ruling that said keeping children of different races in different schools was neither unfair nor a violation of their Constitutional rights.

Resegregation: A recent trend in which white students and minority students are becoming more and more isolated in schools, indicating a possible resurgence of segregation.

Segregation: The act of separating groups of people by race or ethnicity and forbidding their interaction in public gathering places.

Bibliography

A New Friend. Retrieved April 14, 2007, from the Southern Poverty Law Center web project http://www.tolerance.org/teach/web/ptolerance/plan.jsp?ar=215

Armor, D.J. (2006). Brown and black-white achievement. Academic Questions, 19 , 40-46. Retrieved March 17, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=23002611&site=ehost-live

Chapman, T. (2005). Peddling backwards: Reflections of Plessy and Brown in the Rockford public schools de jure desegregation efforts. Race, Ethnicity & Education, 8 , 29-44. Retrieved March 14, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16295809&site=ehost-live

Fleming, N. (2012, May). Magnets adjust to new climate of school choice. Education Week, 31 , p. 1Ð2, 17. Retrieved December 22, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=75173207&site=ehost-live

Fonte, J. (1997). The tragedy of civil rights. Society, 34 , 64-76. Retrieved April 14, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9707130301&site=ehost-live

Frankenberg, E., & Siegel-Hawley, G. (2011, Jan.). Choice without equity: Charter school segregation and the need for Civil Rights standards. Education Digest, 76 , p. 44Ð47.Retrieved December 22, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=56680350&site=ehost-live

Glenn, W. J. (2012). School resegregation: A synthesis of the evidence. Educational Forum, 76 , p. 282Ð298. Retrieved December 22, 2013 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=77384254&site=ehost-live

Knuth, A. (2002). Drawing connections. NEA Today, 48 , 50-53. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6037417&site=ehost-live

Lintner, T. (2005). A world of difference: Teaching tolerance through photographs in elementary school. Social Studies, 96 , 34-37. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16429293&site=ehost-live

McGrane, M. (2004). Brown v. board of education: "Separate but equal" has no place in our society. Florida Bar Journal, 78 , 8. Retrieved April 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13075790&site=ehost-live

New study finds school segregation on the rise. (2001). Techniques: Connecting Education and Careers, 76 , 13-15. Retrieved March 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5340580&site=ehost-live

No Child Left Behind: an overview. Retrieved April 15, 2007, from the U.S. Departmentof Education website http://www.ed.gov/nclb/landing.jhtml

No Child Left Behind is working. Retrieved April 15, 2007, from the U.S. Department of Education website http://www.ed.gov/nclb/overview/importance/nclbworking.html

Parents involved in community schools v. Seattle school district No. 1 et al.

(2007). Supreme Court opinion syllabus. Retrieved July 7, 2007, from http://www.supremecourtus.gov/opinions/06pdf/05-908.pdf

Reardon, S. F., Grewal, E. T., Kalogrides, D., and Greenberg, E. (2012). The end of court-ordered school desegregation and the resegregation of American public schools. Journal of Policy Analysis & Analysis, 31, , p. 876Ð904. Retrieved December 22, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=79862815&site=ehost-live

Private schools are more segregated, study finds (2002). School Law News, 30 , 4. Retrieved April 11, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=7154840&site=ehost-live

Robertson, J. E. (2006). Foreword: "Separate but equal" in prison: Johnson v. California and common sense racism. The Journal of Criminal Law & Criminology, 96 , 795-848. Retrieved April 14, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=21820072&site=ehost-live

Shipley, G. L., & Oborn, C. S. (1996). A review of four preschool programs: Four preschool models that work. Annual Meeting of the Mid-Western Educational Research Association. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED401034).

Still separate after all these years. (2007). Economist, 383 (8526), 31-32. Retrieved July 7, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=24886954&site=ehost-live

Ways to teach tolerance. (2005). NEA Today, 24 , 54. Retrieved April 14, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=18727225&site=ehost-live

Zehr, M.A. (2001). Schools grew more segregated in 1990s, report says. Education Week, 20 , 16-17. Retrieved April 13, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5021726&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Clotfelter, C.T. (2004) Private schools, segregation, and the southern states. Peabody Journal of Education, 79 , 74-97. Retrieved April 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12732222&site=ehost-live

Foner, E. & Kennedy, R. (2004, May 3) Brown at 50. Nation, 278 , 15-17. Retrieved April 12, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12847688&site=ehost-live

Orfield, G. & Lee, C. (2004). Brown at 50: King's Dream or Plessy's Nightmare. Cambridge, MA: Harvard Civil Rights Project. Boston area.