School Psychologist

School psychologists render a breadth of psychological services and fulfill a variety of roles and functions to schools and school districts. School psychologists provide psychological services-interventions, consultations and assessments-to teachers, administrators, students and parents. The history of school psychology in the U. S. can be traced to the late 19th century and the contributions of such psychologists as G. S. Hall and Lightmer Witmer. Psychological theory plays an essential role in the development and evaluation of school-based interventions. The practice of school psychology emphasizes prevention, early intervention, consultation, assessment, counseling, collaboration and problem-solving. There exists considerable disparity between the actual and ideal roles of school psychologists.

Keywords Applied Psychologists; Behavioral Modification Theory; Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy; Consultation; Developmental Psychopathology; Differential Reinforcement; Educational Psychology; Group Contingencies; Interventions; Psychological Assessment; Psychosocial Adjustment; School Psychologist

Overview

School psychologists work as psychological consultants within the context of schools. As applied psychologists, school psychologists provide advice and guidance within schools and school systems. Applied psychologists use their diverse training, education, psychological techniques, and knowledge to solve problems. School psychologists differ from educational psychologists, who are experts in teaching and learning processes. Educational psychologists also conduct applied or practical research to identify questions and answers related to educational and instructional processes (Weber, 1991).

School psychologists work with, and provide services on a daily basis to, classroom teachers who are consultees of their services. They work in close contact with teachers, administrators and other school professionals and paraprofessionals for a common goal and purpose-the social, emotional, and educational growth of students. When teachers, administrators and other school and district personnel work in tandem with school psychologists, they can most effectively utilize their expertise to provide specialized services to those students who can most benefit from them (Mamchak & Mamchak, 1976; Schiappa, Beaulieu, Wilczenski & Bontrager, 2000).

School psychologists concentrate on the needs of students within the educational environment. They may observe students in their classrooms, interview parents, and consult with professionals who have direct information about students' recent performance. They may administer tests and other assessments, gather assessment information about students, interpret and explain assessment results and write reports. School psychologists may serve on teams and committees throughout a school district (Lewis & Doorlag, 1987; Weber, 1991).

History

The history of school psychology can be traced to about 1890. During the period from 1890 to 1920, school psychology was one of many "child-saving" services that originated. The practice of school psychology has followed from the theory and the research interests of the psychologists of the time. The work of Granville Stanley Hall and Lightner Witmer are particularly noteworthy during the early years of this history (Fagan, 1992; French, 1984; Sandoval, 1993).

The American psychologist and educator Granville Stanley or G. S. Hall (1844-1924) founded and edited both the American Journal of Psychology in 1887 and the Journal of Applied Psychology in 1915. Hall is considered to be the founder of child psychology, educational psychology and of "scientific psychology" generally in the U. S. A. He became the first president of the American Psychological Association (APA) in 1891. Hall also had numerous publications during the peak period of his professional work from 1911-1923 (Fagan, 1992; Merriam-Webster Inc., 1988).

Lightner Witmer (1867-1956) was one of the founders of clinical child psychology in the U. S. A. Witmer, in fact, coined the term 'clinical psychology' and founded the first 'psychological clinic' in the U. S. A. In addition to his numerous publications during the period from 1897-1922, Witmer also edited and published the journal The Psychological Clinic from 1908-1935. Witmer described his clinical methods as performing "little experiments on his cases" in order to understand them (Baron, 2006; Fagan, 1992; University of New Hampshire, 2007).

School psychologists were caught up in controversies over the use and misuse of IQ tests as social-science assessment and classification instruments, and the concept of intelligence, during the first third of the 20th century in the U. S. The focus of school psychology narrowed during the 1960s. The APA began accepting doctoral school programs for accreditation in school psychology in 1968. The American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) recognized school psychology as a new examination area in 1968 as well. The National Association of School Psychologists (NASP) was founded in 1969. Consultation models and the consultation role of school psychologists were popular in the 1970s (Farling & Agner, 1979; French, 1985; Phillips, 2001; Reschly, 1976).

The development of interest in children's psychological rights, the changing concepts of childhood, children's rights movements, various declarations of children's rights such as those proposed by the United Nations, White House Conferences on Children and the International School Psychology Committee together constitutes an important historical stream having direct applications and impacts on school psychology (Hart, 1982).

As the numbers of "behaviorally challenging" students entering primary-grade classrooms in U. S. schools increased in the 1990s and early 2000s, a national movement toward expanded school mental-health programs and school-based health centers to provide mental health care to children and adolescents grew. Intervention methods, which had been another important aspect of school psychology, evolved into a full-fledged movement grounded in evidence-based interventions and evidence-based practice. Diversity and specialization within the field of school psychology continued to increase (Kratochwill & Shernoff, 2004; McDougal, Nastasi, & Chafouleas, 2005; Phillips, 1984; Weist, Goldstein, Morris, & Bryant, 2003).

Further Insights

Psychological Theory

School psychologists and guidance counselors need a theoretical and technical basis to design interventions that enhance relationships between children and teachers. There is a range of psychological theory and theoretical principles that underlie the strategies and methods of school psychology that are utilized. School-psychological practices are generally affected by child-centered educational theories (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1985; Pianta, 1999).

There have been three dominant tracks in school-psychological theory - behavioral, process-based and ecological-developmental. Interventions oriented to behavioral-modification theory have long been effectively used in schools. Process-based school-psychological interventions, as the name implies, involves a variety of processes that are employed with individuals and groups. Interventions based on ecological-developmental theory-cognitive development, social development and relationship systems-are approaches which guide and support child-teacher relations. Regardless of the specific theory, approaches to school-based psychological interventions need to be theory-guided, evidence-based and empirically-supported (Herman, Merrell, Reinke, & Tucker, 2004; Iowa State Department of Public Instruction, 1980; Kennedy & Kennedy, 2004; Kratochwill & Stoiber, 2000; Nastasi, 2000; Nastasi, 2006; Pianta, 1999; Sandoval, 1993).

Practice

Psychologists currently working in and practicing psychology in an educational context-traditional and non-traditional school and kindergarten settings-have a scientist-practitioner specialization and are termed specialist-level school psychologists (Lambert, 1993; Lazarus & Jackson, 1983).

School psychologists generally need to be nationally certified and have a state license to practice school psychology. There are three main organizations concerned with accreditation, credentialing, registration and practice regulations of the profession of school psychology. These three organizations for professional school psychologists are the American Psychological Association (APA), the American Board of Professional Psychology (ABPP) and the National Association of School Psychologists (NASP). School-psychological practices are regulated and controlled by the APA's "Ethical Principles and Code of Conduct" and NASP's "Principles for Professional Ethics" and "Standards for the Provision of School Psychological Services." Two additional organizations which practitioners should be aware of are the Council of Directors of School Psychology Programs and the Trainees of School Psychologists (Fagan & Wise, 2000; Lazarus & Jackson, 1983; Phillips, 1993; Phillips, 2001).

The professional practice of school psychology adheres strictly to psychological and developmental principles and emphasizes prevention, early intervention, consultation, assessment, counseling, collaboration and problem-solving. The school practice of psychology is affected by national beliefs, values and educational principles. These principles of practice require that school psychologists' work be "evidence-based, ecological, collaborative and constructive" (Annan, 2005). The practice of school psychology requires that psychologists and counselors have an incredible range of evidence-based knowledge (Kaplan & Kaplan, 1985; Kratochwill & Shernoff, 2003; Thomas & Grimes, 2002).

School psychologists in behavioral-consultation practice use a participatory team-based approach to interventions. Students are pre-referred to an intervention team. Interventions are built on the supportive features of referral situations. Guidelines for the application of behavioral-change methods are followed (Annan, 2005; Iowa State Department of Public Instruction, 1980; McDougal et al., 2005; Nastasi, 2000).

Among the other strategies and methods traditionally used for psychological interventions are differential reinforcement of low rates, differential reinforcement of other behavior, modeling-based interventions, negative practice and overcorrection, precision teaching, satiation, timeout, extinction and punishment (Iowa State Department of Public Instruction, 1980).

Services Provided

The traditional functions of school psychologists include consultation, assessment and counseling. In many school districts, assessment remains as the primary role and function of school psychologists. In these situations, school psychologists serve as psychological examiners to carry out individual and group assessments of students. School psychologists provide direct services such as individual and group assessment and counseling. Within the past decade, school psychologists' roles and functions increasingly involve addressing multicultural and cross-cultural issues, and providing culturally specific or culturally-embedded services to schools (Fagan & Wise, 2000; Hohenshil, 1984; McManus, 1984; Nastasi, 2006).

The school psychologist typically serves in the role of a consultant to the classroom teacher. Consultation has, in fact, become one of the most important role responsibilities of school psychologists. Among the types of consultation services in school settings are collaborative consultation, behavioral consultation, mental-health consultation, peer consultation and organizational consultation (Macklem & Kalinsky, 2000). School psychologists may consult with classroom teachers on a variety of educational-program related services. For example, school psychologists are involved with guidance counselors, teachers, gifted/talented facilitators, other school professionals and consultants in identifying and placing gifted/talented schoolchildren. They may also develop and prepare individualized-educational program plans for learning-disabled school children (Macklem & Kalinsky, 2000; Pianta, 1999).

School psychologists counsel students who are experiencing problems within the family. They facilitate assessments of students and conduct interventions that offer insights into related classroom and family dynamics. The specific kinds of school-based interventions recommended and implemented by school psychologists to improve the academic and behavioral performance of students are those that are the most constructive to the situation, positive and effective in public-school settings. Direct interventions are assuming a greater proportion of the services provided by school psychologists (Annan, 2005; McDougal et al., 2005; Sandoval, 1993; Thomas & Grimes, 2002).

School psychologists provide cognitive-behavioral therapy to children. In elementary schools, school-psychological services are oftentimes behaviorally oriented. School psychologists conduct frequent monitoring of challenging students' behavioral progress and perform functional behavioral assessments as needed. School psychologists must specifically address situations of bullying and victimization of children in school settings. Independent, dependent or interdependent group contingencies can also be effectively used in place of behavioral interventions (Chan, Myron, & Crawshaw, 2005; Craighead, 1982; McDougal et al., 2005; Theodore, Bray, Kehle, & DioGuardi, 2004).

School psychologists provide interventions with students who have attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder or ADHD, which is one of the most common childhood psychiatric disorders. They work with preschool to high-school age students with psychosocial adjustment problems. They also work to meet the needs of students who are depressed or distressed. Schools have become an important setting for the treatment and prevention of anxiety disorders and social phobias, which are also prevalent childhood psychological disorders. School psychologists also work with students who have eating disorders (Anderson, 1987; Cook-Cottone, 2006; Herman, Merrell, Reinke, & Tucker, 2004; Krivacska, 1987; McLoone, Hudson, & Rapee, 2006; Nastasi, 2000; O'Laughlin & Yaakoba-Richmond, 2000).

Viewpoints

Advantages

Certified and licensed professional school psychologists can provide a range of assessment and intervention services to school districts and systems. School psychologists and psychological consultants can offer objective outside appraisals. They may operate relatively autonomously within the school and fulfill diverse roles, however, school psychologists are guided by a code and principles of professional conduct (Flanagan, Miller, & Jacob, 2005; McGraw, 1973).

School psychologists may work in positive environmental contexts and have good working relationships with administrators, teachers and parents. By developing close contacts with teachers, they can serve as useful intermediaries and assist in creating enhanced relationships between teachers and students. School psychologists can counsel students who are experiencing inadequate home environments so they can compensate and make needed adjustments, function more effectively and be successful in school. They can either serve as consultants to teachers or work directly with students and serve as direct agents of behavior change for those not reached through other classroom, school-wide or community-wide intervention programs (Giebink, 1969; Pianta, 1999).

School psychologists promote more effective communication between school personnel and the parents of disadvantaged students in dealing with the problems of these high-risk students. Among the risk factors for educationally disadvantaged students are poverty, membership of a racial/ethnic minority group, living in a single-parent family, having limited English proficiency, and inappropriate and ineffective curricula. School psychologists also have cross-cultural competence which can be applied to solving the problems and issues related to diversity in public-school settings (Davis, 1991; Kearns, Ford, & Linney, 2005).

Challenges

School psychologists may work in negative environmental contexts and in situations where they have little contact or poor working relationships with teachers, administrators and parents. There is considerable disparity between the actual and ideal roles of school psychologists. There is high demand for a variety of school-psychological services and relatively few school psychologists available to handle the workload. They are typically required to serve multiple schools and may not be readily available for consultations with individual teachers who have immediate concerns with students in their classes (Giebink, 1969; Lewis & Doorlag, 1987; McManus, 1984).

School psychologists can be viewed as either intruders or saviors. Some teachers may find their roles to be ambiguous. Teachers may not know when to call upon the services of school psychologists. Then, when they ultimately do ask for assistance, there is considerable lag time before a psychological consultation can be arranged. During this interim period, school psychologists and psychological consultants can sometimes do little more than acquaint themselves with the school system (McGraw, 1973).

School psychologists place increased demands and costs on a school district. The use of school psychologists necessitates a system for their supervision and evaluation. This system should be multi-faceted and involve the supervisor, self, peers and third parties. There is no single existing method of supervision and evaluation that is completely effective or appropriate in all situations. The evaluation tool or instrument used should relate to the functioning of school psychologists and not one used for teachers or administrators (Miller & Ledebur, 1977).

School psychologists require on-going support and professional development. Professional training may be inadequate for all of the types of consultation services school psychologists are called on to provide. School psychologists must continually update their credentials and improve their skills. Peer-mediated support groups are but one recommended approach to supportive ongoing professional development (Cowan, 2007; Macklem & Kalinsky, 2000).

The work of school psychologists regularly involves interpretations and decisions concerning debatable and often controversial issues that entail judgments of ethics, morals and values. School psychologists may need to be provided with assistance in negotiating ethical dilemmas in the work setting (Flanagan et al., 2005).

Terms & Concepts

Applied Psychologists: Psychologists who use their diverse training, education, psychological techniques and knowledge to solve problems and issues in the field of psychology.

Behavioral-Modification Theory: Learning theory which is applied to change behavior and improve student performance.

Cognitive-Behavioral Therapy: Psychological therapy which emphasizes changing behavior(s) by changing how individuals think and the content of their thinking.

Consultation: Model and role in which school psychologists practice school psychology and provide psychological services within schools.

Developmental Psychopathology: A specialized sub-field of psychology concerned with diagnosing and treating developmental disorders and emotional/behavioral problems in young children.

Differential Reinforcement: A process in conditioning in which some responses are reinforced and others are not.

Educational Psychologists: Applied psychologists who are experts in teaching and learning processes and conduct research studies to identify questions and answers related to educational and instructional processes.

Group Contingencies: Behavioral interventions used with groups of students to reduce disruptive behaviors.

Interventions: Supportive psychological consultations, services, assessments/evaluations, counseling sessions, treatments/therapies for "intervening"-preventing, diagnosing, treating, solving problems, coping, conferring, referring, making decisions, modifying behaviors, et cetera-with students, teachers and administrators in schools and classrooms.

Practitioners: Psychologists who are practicing psychology and providing psychological services in schools.

Psychological Assessment: Any of various individual or group methods used to evaluate, diagnose and treat psychological or behavioral problems.

Psychosocial Adjustment: Process in which intervention strategies are used to assist individuals in "internalizing" and making emotional and behavioral modifications to improve psychological and social symptoms and reduce school-related behavioral problems.

Referral: Process of identifying, selecting and placing students who are in need of psychological intervention.

School Psychologists: Applied psychologists who work as psychological consultants within the context of schools and provide advice and guidance to students, teachers, administrators and parents.

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Suggested Reading

Aalsma, M. C., Lapsley, D. K., & Flannery, D. J. (2006). Personal fables, narcissism, and adolescent adjustment. Psychology in the Schools, 43 , 481-491. Retrieved October 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20080491&site=ehost-live

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Kratochwill, T. R., Sladeczeck, I., & Plunge, M. (1995). The evolution of behavior consultation. Journal of Educational & Psychological Consultation, 6 , 145-157. Retrieved October 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=7443610&site=ehost-live

Nastasi, B. K. (2006). Multicultural issues in school psychology practice: Introduction. Journal of Applied School Psychology, 22 , 1-11. Retrieved October 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23439803&site=ehost-live