School Superintendency

The school superintendent occupies a highly public position as he or she oversees the management and development of a community's schools. The job is often fraught with controversy. The superintendent must balance the interests of teachers, administrators, parents, and community groups all while seeking to serve the students' best interests. To be successful, a superintendent must effectively communicate his vision, foster positive relationships between stakeholders, and, when necessary, be willing to exercise his or her authority to resolve conflicts. Before accepting a superintendency, candidates should carefully research a district's political climate to ensure a good fit between him or herself and the district.

Keywords American Association of School Administrators (AASA); Central-Office Position; Participatory Management; Public Education; Public Schools; School Board; Superintendent; Superintendency

School Administration & Policy > School Superintendency

Overview

Approximately 14,000 school districts make up our nation's public education system (Richard, 2000). While many people may unintentionally take ubiquitous access to public schools for granted, the truth is that it is the local school district leadership that enables schools to function as they do. Serving as the primary face of this leadership is the District Superintendent.

Our school superintendencies are occupied by experienced and accomplished men and women. While most enjoy their work, few will argue that the job isn't demanding. School superintendents must be leaders, communicators, mediators, decision makers, and supporters. The job holds unique challenges that, for many, make it more of a vocation than an occupation.

Educational consultant and 1990 National Superintendent of the Year Don Draayer offers a unique parsing of the word "super-in-tend-ent" to arrive at the essence of what it means to be one (Draayer, 2006). A superintendent, he writes, is responsible for "tending" the school district. He or she "watches over, guards and responds to the needs of those within his or her charge: early childhood, K-12 and adult learners, co-workers, community and society at large" (Draayer, 2006, p. 1).

A superintendent is also responsible for the district's "intending." Beyond tending to the day to day needs of the district, the superintendent must

set forth goals, strike direction and achieve purposes. Status quo goes out the window. Homeostasis is found not in what was or is, but what shall be. Leadership, action and change form centerpieces of the job description. Boldness, risk and opportunity come together intentionally when this fuller measure of the superintendent's job is properly understood (Draayer 2006, pp. 1-2).

Finally, superintendency, in exceeding the demands of most other jobs, is more of a vocation than an occupation. Draayer notes that "[a]ccepting the title of school superintendent requires a willingness to apply both the mind and heartfelt values to the cause of education with a level of devotion and direction that clearly goes beyond the ordinary. Accountability is tied to the highest standards" (Draayer, 2006, p. 2).

Despite the "super" nature of the superintendency, White (2007) observes that the superintendency is only as strong as the level of support which it receives from the school district. White suggests that while superintendents must lead their respective districts, they must also remain aware that "the key leaders are the teachers and the principals who supervise them" (White, 2007).

Qualifications

The qualities a superintendent needs to be successful vary from district to district. Every district has its own difficulties and political situations which require different skills and experiences from its superintendent. When choosing a superintendent, school boards tend to look most closely at the candidate's academic qualifications, administrative experience, community relationships, and personal qualities (Glass 1993).

The majority of superintendents hold doctorate degrees, usually in education administration; most other superintendents hold masters' degrees. However, some studies indicate that education administration programs often do not sufficiently prepare students for the challenges they will face as administrators (Glass, 1993, p.79; Jacobon, 2005). Programs tend to emphasize theory over practice, resulting in graduates who have not had the opportunity to test what they have learned in the real world of education.

Rather than their academic credentials, superintendents usually cite their experiences serving in other administrative positions as the best preparation for a superintendent position. In a 1991 study of superintendents whom their peers identified as exemplary, most had followed a career path from teacher to principal to central office to a superintendency. Sixty-three percent of these exemplary superintendents had spent five or fewer years teaching, and 68.5% began their first administrative position before they reached the age of thirty (Glass, 1993). Administrative positions help aspiring superintendents gain a better understanding of school board operations and the relationship between boards or committees and superintendents, as well as how to manage financial resources and build support among stakeholders (Hord et al, 1993).

Another major consideration is how well a superintendent understands and relates to the district in which he or she is serving. Meeting a community's educational needs requires the support of a variety of groups including school board members, principals, teachers, students, and parents. Often, these groups have conflicting interests. A superintendent must maintain strong relationships with all of these stakeholders in order to effectively mediate between them for the good of the district.

Finally, a superintendent must demonstrate certain personal qualities which inspire trust and confidence within the district. School boards often ask that candidates have good judgment, personality, poise, intelligence, a sense of humor, good physical and mental health and an open mind (Hoard et al, 1993). Superintendents are highly visible figures in their communities, and can quickly attract criticism for actual or perceived mistakes. They must have the strength of character to work with districts through the pressures attending their jobs.

District Vision & Goals

School boards and superintendents should also have similar visions for their districts. Some school boards are more or less satisfied with their community's schools and only need the superintendent to maintain their performance. Other boards might desire specific improvements like raising test scores; they need someone who will work with them to develop the district, but not fundamentally change it. Another board may have come to a point where its members believe deep, systemic change is needed. Their superintendent must be willing to provide and implement a deep, comprehensive vision that will radically change how the district functions. Though school boards and superintendents may disagree on the specifics of how plans should be executed, to maintain a good working relationship, it is crucial that they share similar visions of the district's future (Hoard et al, 1993).

At its core, the superintendency is a position both of leadership and accountability and of support and personnel development. A successful superintendent has "the ability to bring out the best leadership qualities in colleagues, parents and students and engender in them the same kind of passion for the district's vision and goals" (White, 2007, p. 1). In and of itself, however, this can often prove a daunting task. Board members, administrators and teachers can sometimes be less than enthusiastic about implementing changes or improvements proposed by the superintendent. Such a lack of support, White notes, can be a source of tension which not only delays the implementation of program improvements but can also cause relational roadblocks between the superintendent and the school board.

Further Insights

Communication

Because so many stakeholders are involved in the future of a school district, White (2007) emphasizes that communication is vital. He writes, "Communication is the essential tool for building the case for change and creating the mandate for destroying the status quo. It is the key to neutralizing or defeating the common attitude of 'this reform, too, shall pass'" (White, 2007, p. 2). One of the best ways to create an environment conducive to success is for the superintendent to nurture relationships with school boards, administrators, and teachers in order to effectively delegate tasks and leadership.

The superintendent must also be sure that his vision is clearly communicated to teachers and administrators – people who work most closely with students. In the end, it will be these people who see out the day to day implementation of the superintendent's vision. White recommends "comprehensive recruitment, effective staff development, and clearly defined and supported expectations" (2007, p. 2). However, it is the superintendent who ultimately bears the praise or the blame for success or failure. "[T]he superintendent," White writes, "is always responsible for what happens in the school district" (White, 2007, p. 2).

By the Numbers: Gender in the Superintendency

While the demographics of many professions have changed over time to better reflect national or even regional demographics, school superintendencies have in many ways remained demographically static. This is particularly visible in the percentages of women and minorities who fill – or perhaps more accurately, who do not fill – these leadership roles in public education.

According to the American Association of School Administrators (AASA), the years 2001-2010 will witness a superintendent job-opening rate of 1,000 per year (Richard, 2000). AASA expects that this will be due to a higher-than-average rate of retiring superintendents. These openings may provide much-needed opportunities for women and minorities to move into positions in which they are underrepresented. Richard notes that, although the percentage of female superintendents doubled from 1992 to 2000 – growing from 6.6% to 13.2% - in 2000, 86.6% of superintendents were male. In addition, while minority superintendents had also seen an increase in percentage, it was limited at best. As of 2000, minorities still held only 5.1% of the nation's superintendencies.

Grogan and Brunner (2005) deconstruct the demographics of the superintendency to arrive at some surprising and puzzling conclusions. They compared a nationwide survey of women superintendents and women in central-office positions commissioned by AASA with the findings of "The 2000 AASA Study of the Superintendency." The following statistics reflect Grogan and Brunner's findings, which show both differences and similarities between male and female superintendents:

• 70% of superintendents are 55 years of age or younger, and this percentage holds true both for men and for women. As of 2003, women held the leadership of 18% of the nation's 13,728 school districts.

• 47% of women earned their highest degrees within the past decade. For men, this number lags behind at 36%, and over 40% of men earned their highest degree at least 15 or more years ago.

• 58% of female superintendents hold undergraduate degrees in education as compared to 24% of male superintendents.

• Female superintendents as a whole have more years of classroom experience than their male counterparts, while almost 40% of men had spent five years or fewer in the classroom prior to moving into an administrative position (Grogan & Brunner, 2005).

This extra experience in education may play a role in the future advancement of female administrators and superintendents. Though in the past superintendents have tended to have strong backgrounds in administration, candidates with backgrounds in curriculum and instruction are becoming more and more attractive to school boards. A degree in education and solid classroom experience demonstrate that a candidate understands these fields both theoretically and practically. Candidates with experience in elementary education may have a particular advantage, since they will likely be more familiar with the fundamentals of math and literacy. They will also be more likely to have experience working with parents, since parents tend to be most involved in their children's education at the elementary school level (Grogan & Brunner, 2005).

Interestingly, the path to the top also differed in some aspects for men and for women. Half of women superintendents indicated that they moved from being a teacher to a principal to a central-office position, and then to being a superintendent; yet some moved directly from principal to superintendent, and still others moved directly from teaching to central-office to superintendent. Men, on the other hand, were less likely to bypass the position of principal on their journey to superintendent.

The study indicated that the majority of superintendents enjoy their positions, but even here a marked difference exists between men and women. While 74% of women responded that they would choose the same occupation if they were able to make the choice again, only 67% of men said the same.

The high rate of positive response to this question among women is particularly interesting since superintendency is known to place a high degree of stress on family life. Their survey found that 30% of female respondents indicated that they had waited until their children were a bit older before deciding to move forward in pursuing a superintendency. One the other hand, 35% of women superintendents raised children under the age of 20 while at the same time serving in the superintendent position. Of these, 32% raised children who were 15 years old or younger.

At the same time, however, the women surveyed indicated that marriage was often a casualty of their jobs. Of the 13% who were divorced, many indicated that the divorce was a result of the job demands of the superintendency. Conversely, married female superintendents cited support from their spouses as an important factor in their success and ability to handle both the demands of the job and their family responsibilities.

By the Numbers: Race in the Superintendency

When Grogan and Brunner turned to racial considerations, the numbers are also telling. Of greatest note, perhaps, is the lack of correspondence between race ratios in the overall population and race ratios in the superintendency. AASA's 2000 study showed that 8% of respondents indicated that they were superintendents of color, and only 1% of women in the Grogran/Brunner study identified themselves as Latina. Yet, this statistic is not reflective of the American population as a whole.

Grogan and Brunner further explain:

African-American women do not obtain superintendencies as quickly as their white counterparts: 56 percent of African-American women were hired within the first year of actively seeking a superintendency compared with more than 70 percent of white aspirants. Moreover, 25 percent of African-American women report waiting five or more years to obtain a superintendency compared to only 8 percent of white women and 9 percent of white men (Grogan & Brunner, 2005, p. 3).

Their study also revealed that school boards which have a high degree of diversity among their members are more likely than non-diverse boards to hire minority superintendents.

Hidden Truths of the Superintendency

Former superintendent Terry Furin (2004) tells of the morning he learned that a friend and fellow superintendent had committed suicide. A mere two months prior to this, Furin relates that another of his superintendent colleagues had been sentenced to prison for theft and forgery. Two years later, still another superintendent committed suicide amid hearings regarding "alleged misdeeds" (Furin, 2004).

What is perhaps most disturbing about these tragedies is that, as Furin writes, they are not isolated. Rather, he notes, many superintendents experience similar serious problems. Seeking to uncover the root cause, Furin asks, "Was it a question of not knowing the relevant laws or district policies? Doubtful. Did these individuals lack personal ethics? Not the ones I have in mind. Did they recklessly jeopardize their careers, families and lives for comparatively few extra dollars? Hard to believe" (Furin, 2004, p. 2). What, then, does he conclude? Simply this: "Sometimes something breaks down in the twilight zone between leadership theory and practice. The certainties of leadership theory so nobly taught and learned in graduate school simply do not ring true with the demands of the real world – at least not for some" (Furin, 2004, p. 2).

Theory & Practice in Participatory Management

This "twilight zone," Furin writes, is created by the dichotomy between the belief that superintendents should foster a climate of "participatory management" and the expectation that superintendents act with authority when making decisions. In participatory management, decisions are made by those affected by the decisions. A superintendent who works in this model seeks contributory participation from teachers, administrators, parents, and other people with a stake in the district's schools. The theory is that such synergistic participation leads the participants to a greater understanding one another, bettering the group as a whole (Furin, 2004, p. 2).

When put into practice, however, Furin notes that reality often does not bear out theory. While the democratic process of transformational leadership may sound appealing, in truth, the very participating members of such a process – administrators, teachers, parents, etc. – often want a decisive leader who will stand up and make difficult decisions. As Furin writes, stakeholders "want the top school official to be a person who can show muscle. Be tough. Be every place at once. Make quick decisions. Make all decisions" (Furin, 2004, p. 3).

Thus, superintendents find themselves in positions in which they must determine when to act alone and when to draw upon input from others. This position, Furin writes, leads them into "a twilight zone where they experience a disconnect between what they have been taught and what is expected. And they enter it alone" (Furin, 2004, p. 3). The result of these conflicting expectations can be a situation in which superintendents develop what Furin refers to as a "personality cult of self." If superintendents become isolated, they may take undue possession of their vocation, transforming every aspect of their job into a vital part of their ego --- "'my' vision, 'my' curriculum, 'my' teachers, 'my' building, 'my' test, 'my' lunch menu, 'my' bus schedule" (Furin, 2004, p.3 ). Such isolation leads to tragedy, as attested to by the three scenarios described above.

Superintendents must strike a balance between negotiating compromises between conflicting interests, and exercising their authority. Barbara A. Vonvillas, a Rhode Island superintendent, recommends that administrators always try to reach a consensus among stakeholders before stepping in to resolve a conflict. If a consensus is not forthcoming, however, she writes that the decision should be based on disinterested research and principles which affirm the best interests of the students (Vonvillas, 2007).

School District Climate & Politics

Before stepping into a superintendent position, candidates should also thoroughly research the professional and political climate of a district to determine if it will be a good fit for them. The most important factors in evaluating a superintendency are relationships and organizational results (Sternberg et al, 2002, p. 2). Because relationships are so important when leading a school district, candidates need to evaluate how well stakeholders relate to one another and the superintendent; candidates should also assess how effective the district is in communicating and implementing its initiatives.

Sternberg (2002) suggests reviewing the school board voting history to see how often its members agree, and if it has a record of supporting the superintendent's decisions, initiatives, and recommendations. When interviewing with the board and other stakeholders, ask about their goals and objectives. Pay attention not just to their responses, but to how they interact with one another. Do some people or groups undercut others, or do they generally support one another? Ask, too, about their relationships with the previous superintendent. Pay attention to how they respond to you, as well. Do some people or groups appear hostile or indifferent, or are they all equally committed to considering your candidacy? (Sternberg et al, 2002).

Public information can be revealing. What are the district's racial and family income statistics? Are families moving into the district or moving away? What are students' test scores, what percentage are on a free lunch program? The yellow pages are a good source for finding out what sort of businesses are supported by the population (Sternberg et al, 2002).

Candidates should also speak with people inside the district to who are involved in education, but not politically or personally committed. Secretaries, journalists, newspaper editors, coaches, and parents can all be helpful. Ask what they believe the district's objectives to be and how well it accomplishes them. Ask if there have been any major staff changes and, if so, why. One superintendent even suggests contacting a realtor to look at houses in order to casually talk with homeowners about what they think of the school district (Sternberg et al, 2002).

While there is no foolproof way to avoid obstacles on the way to the superintendency or to avoid challenges once in the position, understanding the demands of the job while recognizing the great opportunities inherent in the position may help current and future superintendents place in perspective the stresses and rewards of the position. As the number of superintendent openings grows nationwide, qualified men and women of diverse experiences and ethnicities will no doubt rise to the challenge of filling these leadership positions in our nation's public school system.

Terms & Concepts

American Association of School Administrators (AASA): A professional organization senior-level administrators and chief executive officers representing school districts across the country, whose stated mission is "to support and develop effective school system leaders who are dedicated to the highest quality public education for all children."

Central-Office Position: A position in the office that serves as the administrative center of a school district.

Cult of Self: A psychological state created when a person takes excessive control of his or her leadership position. Following an authoritarian leadership model rather than a democratic model, these people become isolated and out of touch with the people they are meant to be leading.

Participatory Management: A management model in which decisions are at least partially made by those affected by the decision. Such synergistic participation is supposed to enable participants to learn from each other, benefiting the group as a whole.

Public Education: Education required by the government and open to the public.

Public Schools: Schools supported by funding from the public, usually via tax revenue, which provide free education for children.

School Board or Committee: The governing body in charge of overseeing local public schools.

Superintendent: As pertaining to schools, the individual who holds supervisory and executive oversight and authority within a school district. The superintendent is often responsible for personnel hiring, firing, and development, budget preparation, and implementation of school policies and procedures.

Superintendency: The office of superintendent; the act of superintending.

Bibliography

Draayer, D. (2006). What does the title 'super-in-tend-ent' mean to you? School Administrator 63 48. Retrieved April 27, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=19882410&site=ehost-live

Furin, T. (2004). Tragedy at the top. School Administrator, 61 , 16-19. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=12058153&site=ehost-live

Graves, B. (2011). Stretched superintendents. (cover story). School Administrator, 68, 12-19. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=59787437&site=ehost-live

Grissom, J. A., & Andersen, S. (2012). Why superintendents turn over. American Educational Research Journal, 49, 1146-1180. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=83576684&site=ehost-live

Grogan, M., & Brunner, C. (2005). Women leading systems. School Administrator, 62 , 46-50. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=15963520&site=ehost-live

Jacobson, J. (2005). The Ed.D. – Who needs it? Chronicle of Higher Education, 52 , A20 – A24. Retrieved August 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=18376472&site=ehost-live

Richard, A. (2000). Studies cite lack of diversity in top positions. Education Week, 19 , 3. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2893340&site=ehost-live

Sternberg, R., Friedman, R., & Harrison, P. (2002). The new job: Tailored fit or misfits? School Administrator, 59 , 6. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=6556966&site=ehost-live

Superintendent frustrations grow, but intangible rewards remain high. (2012). District Administration, 48, 63-64. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=82747793&site=ehost-live

Vonvillas, B. (2007) You can't please everyone. School Administrator, 64 , 54-55. Retrieved August 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24204097&site=ehost-live

White, E. (2007). The primacy of the superintendent. School Administrator, 64 , 58-58. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24204099&site=ehost-live

Glass, T. (1993). Exemplary superintendents: Do they fit the model? In Selecting, Preparing and Developing the School District Superintendent (pp. 57 – 70). Bristol, PA: The Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED393215). Retrieved August 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/14/6e/9d.pdf

Hord, S. & Estes, N. Superintendent selection and success. In Selecting, Preparing and Developing the School District Superintendent (pp. 57 – 70). Bristol, PA: The Falmer Press, Taylor & Francis Inc. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED393215). Retrieved August 16, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/14/6e/9d.pdf

Suggested Reading

Beem, K. (2007). Superintendent mentoring the state way. School Administrator, 64 , 10-18. Retrieved April 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24545128&site=ehost-live

Brunner, C. (2000). Seeking representation: Supporting black female graduate students who aspire to the superintendency. Urban Education, 35 , 532. Retrieved April 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3772263&site=ehost-live

Christie, K. (2002). Leadership: A message for state legislatures. Phi Delta Kappan, 83 , 345. Retrieved, April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5842086&site=ehost-live

Dana, J., & Bourisaw, D. (2006). Overlooked leaders. American School Board Journal, 193 , 27-30. Retrieved April 23, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=20997213&site=ehost-live

Raymond, J. (2007). Lonely at the top. School Administrator, 64 , 61-61. Retrieved April 28, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=24545142&site=ehost-live