Self-Directed Learning

Self-directed learning (SDL) is an instructional model where learners take initiative in their educational processes, allowing them to learn at their own pace and based on pre-determined content set by instructors. This approach emphasizes personal autonomy, self-management, and learner control, enabling individuals to diagnose their learning needs, set goals, and evaluate their outcomes. SDL is particularly effective in adult education, as adults often possess the motivation and responsibility to engage in autonomous learning. It has been embraced in various fields, including business training and medical education, as a means to develop lifelong learning skills.

While SDL promotes independence, it can pose challenges for some students, particularly those who are underprepared or resistant to changing their learning styles from traditional teacher-centered methods. To foster successful self-directed learning experiences, educators must create supportive environments, provide necessary scaffolding, and gradually introduce self-directed concepts. Assessment tools have been developed to evaluate learners' readiness and perceptions of their self-directed learning abilities. Overall, self-directed learning encourages critical thinking and self-awareness, equipping learners with the skills to manage their own educational journeys.

Published in: 2021

By: Smith, Tricia

Subject Terms

Self-Directed Learning

Self-directed learning is a model of instruction whereby learning content is pre-determined by the instructor and students learn at their own pace to master this content. Characteristics of self-directed learning include personal autonomy, self-directed learning, learner control and auto-didaxy. Additionally, self-directed learning has become a generic training model for business, medicine and adult education. Problem-based learning also incorporates elements of self-directed instruction in its model. Assessment tools are available to measure the impact of self-directed learning, such as the degree to which people perceive themselves as having the skills and attitudes necessary for successful learning.

Keywords Auto-didaxy; Autonomous Learning; Learning Self-Awareness; Problem-Based Learning; Resistant Student; Scaffolding; Self-Directed Learner; Self-Directed Learning (SDL); Self-Directed Learning Perception Scale; Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale; Student-Centered Learning; Under-Prepared Student

Teaching Methods > Self-Directed Learning

Overview

Self-directed learning (SDL) is a teaching model that goes by many names: individualized instruction, student-centered learning, and prescriptive learning (Piskurich, 1994). While self-directed learning is predominantly viewed as a model of instruction, other educators see self-directed learning as a goal, as well as a process, where self-directed learning becomes a catalyst that promotes life-long learning among students (Boud, 1988; Candy, 1991; Knapper and Cropley, 1991; Kreber, 1998). When viewed as a model of instruction, learning content is pre-determined by the instructor and students learn at their own pace to master this content, with or without the aid of the instructor.

Educators’ Views of Self-Directed Learning

Knowles (1975) describes self-directed learning as:

[A] process in which individuals take the initiative, with or without the help of others, in diagnosing their learning needs, formulating learning goals, identifying human and material resources for learning, choosing and implementing appropriate learning strategies, and evaluating learning outcomes (p. 18).

The self-directed process model is based on the interaction between students and educators, as students gradually develop autonomy in their own learning process. Pilling-Cormick (1997) states that the overriding framework of the self-directed learning process is that students direct their own learning. Self-directed learning requires a paradigm shift away from teacher-centered approaches to learning, where the teacher imparts knowledge to the students. While self-directed learning can be implemented at any grade level, the adult is the optimal learner for this method of instruction. Knowles' (1983) view of the adult self is one who can take responsibility for learning, by becoming autonomous, independent and self-directing learners (Taylor, 1997).

Bartell (1971) views self-directed learning as a philosophy rather than a method of instruction. Teachers must philosophically assume that students are capable of taking responsibility for their own learning. The teacher becomes "a consultant, tutor, listener, catalyst, or partner in learning" (p. 247). They are engaged in a process of mutual inquiry with students rather than transmitting specific knowledge (Taylor, 1997). The purpose of this method of learning is to teach students to become learners who are able to diagnose and supplement their own learning deficiencies (Schmidt, 2000). However, for many students, processes like setting goals and sustaining motivation do not occur naturally or easily. Therefore, the learning environment and teaching practices must be designed with intention to support students' self-regulated learning (English & Kitsantas, 2013).

Robotham (1995) sees self-directed learning as a catalyst for further self-initiated learning in a field of study. The students who develop certain skills through self-directed learning methodologies will understand their own learning process and how to improve that process so that they can transfer this fundamental understanding to future self-directed learning experiences. Through reflecting upon their self-directed learning experience, they can consider what motivates them to self-direct their learning, and the processes through which they become self-aware. Skills that increase students' ability to engage in this type of autonomous learning are: reading skills, deep-level approaches to learning, comprehension monitoring, the ability to ask questions, and critical thinking (Kreber, 1998, p. 325).

History

Self-directed learning resulted from the rapid change and growth of knowledge that has occurred in today's world. People must continually update their skills and this can be done through self-directed learning programs and experiences. Over the past few decades, attention has been paid to learning that needs to occur without the benefit of constant interaction with teachers. The origins of self-directed learning can be traced to John Dewey (1916, 1938). As Wilcox (1992) states, Dewey asserted that all people are born with an unlimited potential for growth and development. Through education, teachers can best facilitate growth and development by neither interfering with nor controlling the process of learning. Self-directed learning theory and models emerged in the 1970's as a prominent model of instruction in adult education practices. Knowles (1975, 1983), Tough (1971) and Candy (1991) led the field in developing the conceptual framework for understanding self-directed learning, embracing four distinct elements of SDL:

• Personal autonomy,

• Self-management,

• Learner control, and

• Autodidaxy.

Self-directed learning requires certain behaviors and characteristics of the student who is involved in the process. Okabayashi and Torrance (1984) state that such characteristics include abilities:

• To sense the relevant and important information in a task;

• To access source information;

• To think independently and follow instructions and rules;

• To recognize and accept responsibility for one's learning; and

• To self-start a task.

Students who possess these characteristics possess "learning self-awareness." They have an appreciation and understanding of how they learn, of their learning capabilities, and of the outcomes that they want to achieve (Robotham, 1995, p. 3).

Applications

Teaching SDL

Teachers who are committed to self-directed learning value students' individual differences (McGaghie & Menges, 1975). Della-Dora and Wells (1980) state that there are guidelines teachers can follow to assure that their students are involved in successful self-directed learning experiences. Teachers must set realistic limits and teach students how to make solid decisions about their learning processes. Teachers must afford themselves of training so that they can teach students how to be successful self-directed learners. They need to know what is to be learned, how it is to be learned, and how to evaluate what is actually learned. Specific areas of training that will aid teachers in enhancing the learning process for students involved in self-directed learning include understanding:

• The dynamics of individual and group decision-making processes;

• The sequence of events that students need to carry out a step-by-step plan of action; and

• How to develop criteria (Dell-Dora & Wells, 1980).

Teachers must achieve a balance of flexibility for students to determine the appropriate processes for learning and to keep the program and students on track (Robotham, 1995).

In any self-directed learning experience, teachers must set up the program so that students can be successful learners. Generally, teachers scaffold lessons, providing sufficient guidance and direction in the early stages of the model so that students do not get lost. Teachers should clearly communicate aims and objectives periodically so that students can undergo the transition to learning material on their own terms. Throughout the self-directed learning process, teachers should provide periodic evaluation and identify potential problems along the way (Robotham, 1995).

Using SDL for Business Training

Self-directed learning has become a generic training model for business. This model of learning can be an essential component of an employee development strategy that both improves individual performance and achieves organizational goals (Long & Morris, 1996). The model is designed so that trainees work at their own pace to master pre-determined material, with little or no help from an instructor. Piskurich (1991) states that consistency in training must be a common goal of all participants in order to be successful in the self-directed learning process. Unsuccessful SDL training will not work well if the training is done too quickly, if trainees are required to work alone, if the material is always changing, or if consistent performance is not a goal of the learning process. In the business world, SDL can be very successful if there is an adequate analysis of the material and of the trainees before the training process. Trainers must analyze the audience and determine the amount of preparation needed so that the trainees can be successful in their self-directed learning process. The trainer must write solid objectives that encompass the dimensions of the material, determine the media format or how materials will be delivered, review all aspects of the program prior to its implementation, and pilot the program to determine its "ease of use," as well as whether it does all it is supposed to do (Piskurich, 1991, p. 48).

Problem-Based Learning & SDL

Problem-based learning has been linked to self-directed learning models, as the skill base emphasized in self-directed learning is also prevalent in problem-based learning (Ryan, 1993). In problem-based learning, students identify the problem and then engage in self-directed learning to solve the problem (Margerson, 1994). Other elements of self-directed learning that are included in problem-based learning are: setting objectives, accessing materials, and reflecting on learning (Taylor, 1997). Problem-based learning strategies have been found to be successful in part when the community members established a context and culture of high expectations, collaboration, and evaluation; united the students, teachers, and industry leaders as shared stakeholders in the success of the project; identified early the key criteria for evaluating progress; and asked questions to evaluate progress towards meeting the criteria, using many approaches to gathering information (West, Williams & Williams, 2013). Teachers can merge these two models of learning by assigning a self-directed learning project, where students make a "systematic deliberate effort to learn something, where projects can be self-study or group planned" (Shannon, 2000, p. 2).

Assessment Methods & Tools

Several assessment tools have been developed to measure the growth of students and trainees who use self-directed learning. The Autonomous Learner Index is a Likert scale that is administered to students at the beginning and the end of the learning process and measures how students improve in their self-directed learning process. The tool measures six factors:

• Intrinsic motivation;

• Perseverance in problem solving;

• Need for structure in the learning involvement;

• Learning curiosity;

• Confidence in one's own study skills; and

• Need for teacher direction (Della-Dora, McGovern, & Wells, 1980, p. 526).

The Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale (SDLRS) measures the degree to which people perceive themselves as having the skills and attitudes necessary for self-directed learning. Guglielmino (1977) has identified eight factors that interpret self-directed behavior:

• Openness to learning opportunities,

• Self-concept as an effective learner,

• Initiative,

• Independence in learning,

• Informal acceptance of responsibility for one's learning,

• A love to learn,

• Creativity, and

• Future orientation for the ability to use basic study skills and problem-solving skills.

However, this measure has been criticized for its intent. Critics express a concern as to whether educators can measure one's readiness for self-directed learning, that perhaps this scale merely measures enthusiasm or love of learning (Field, 1989; Hughes, 1999).

Another measure used in self-directed learning is the Self-Directed Learning Perception Scale. The SDLPS is a reflective measure that was designed to assess students' perceptions of the environmental characteristics that help or inhibit their ability to be self-directed (Pilling-Cormick, 1997).

Further Insights

Classroom Climate

Teachers who promote self-directed learning in their classrooms must establish a positive classroom climate that enhances this type of learning experience. Teachers should consider beginning slowly with those students who have not been involved in self-directed learning, increasing individual self-directed learning while proportionately decreasing teacher-centered approaches to learning. Teachers can establish positive classroom climate by developing well-planned organized materials for the instructional process and providing the proper support to students until they are comfortable with self-directed learning methods (Bartell, 1971).

Learning to Become Self-Directed

Manz (1983) states that students can be successful in self-directed learning by developing self-leadership. Self-leadership consists of "a learnable set of behavioral-focused and cognitive-focused skills for becoming more effectively self-directed" (p. 6). Students are often faced with tasks that are not naturally attractive and require self-discipline and intrinsic motivation. Students can train themselves to be more open to self-directed learning models and experiences through: self-observation, goal setting, self-reward, rehearsal, and self-criticism. Students do require confidence to achieve this (Macaskill & Denovan, 2013); helping build that confidence is another vital function of the teacher.

Manz (1989) also suggests that teachers can develop strategies that can help learners develop thought patterns and habits that will enhance their ability to accept self-directed learning as a viable means of acquiring knowledge and skills. These involve building rewards into tasks to change learning behaviors, beliefs or assumptions about the benefits of self-directed learning.

Reflection

Teachers can determine which students need added motivation or assistance by asking them to reflect upon their previous self-directed learning experiences. Those students most successful in accepting a self-directed learning model possess:

• The ability to identify their own learning needs;

• A positive view of their own learning capabilities, based on previous self-directed learning experiences;

• The ability to set appropriate learning goals;

• Expertise in selecting learning strategies or in devising new strategies;

• Self-motivation and self-discipline;

• Flexibility in setting objectives and choosing learning strategies; and

• An understanding of learning strengths and weaknesses (Robotham, 1995, p. 5).

Reducing Student Resistance

Teachers are often faced with students who have a different perception about their learning experiences and are averse to changing their learning models to include a self-directed learning approach. Akerlind and Trevitt (1999) suggest that there are many strategies that teachers can follow to enhance student confidence in self-directed models. Teachers can introduce changes in instruction gradually by:

• Clearly communicating requirements to students;

• Introducing activities that focus on increasing confidence;

• Introducing materials in developmental stages;

• Including appropriate skill development activities;

• Demonstrating these activities;

• Scaffolding students in groups;

• Presenting examples of previous student work; and

• Asking previous students to talk to the class (p. 100).

Viewpoints

While literature suggests that self-directed learning is a way for students to learn a particular skill or strategy, there are students who are not successful self-directed learners, as they may not be open to this type of learning. Jones and Kember (1994) state that students who strive to understand material are more likely to adjust to self-directed learning models than those students who aim to memorize or reproduce material. As Robotham (1995) points out, these students may:

• Lack belief in their own abilities;

• Fail to recognize that self-direction is needed in certain situations;

• Set inappropriate learning goals that fail to act as motivators; or

• Have had previous self-directed learning experiences that were unsuccessful (p. 3).

Akerlind and Trevitt (1999) also reveal that under-prepared or resistant learners find it difficult to change or accept self-directed learning in their learning skill sets, as this model is unlike the teacher-centered approaches they have experienced in the past. Teachers can counteract this resistance by introducing changes in instruction to include self-directed learning models gradually. Jones and Kember (1994) state that teachers should explain to their students why they advocate self-directed learning in their classrooms; provide students with structured opportunities to reflect on the advantages and disadvantages of teacher and student-centered learning; and provide examples of successful self-directed learning in previous students. Student resistance can be overcome by fostering a positive perception of self-directed learning (Laurillard, 1993).

While critics such as Brookfield (1986) express concern that self-directed learning has become too orthodox in that teachers are defining the program of study that students must follow in their learning process, self-directed learning has become a mode of inquiry for those in adult education. Educators, particularly in business and medical education, have embraced self-directed learning as it produces learners who can manage their own learning throughout their careers (Greveson and Spencer, 2005).

Barriers to Self-Directed Learning

Teachers must adapt self-directed learning programs to the needs of a particular group; if they do not consider these possible blocks to the learning process, the self-directed sessions will not be successful. Possible barriers can be student or teacher-based and could include:

• Students who are poorly motivated, lack confidence, or do not possess the skills necessary for this type of learning structure;

• Students who have not been successful in previous self-directed learning experiences; or

• A rigid training structure, such as lack of flexibility, lack of direction or guidance, and poor structure of lessons (Robotham, 1995).

Underprepared or Resistant Students

Akerlind & Trevitt (1999) state that some students are underprepared for the role that self-directed learning requires of them. While teachers strive to increase student independence and autonomy, they may be confronting student beliefs about how they learn best. Students may have a different concept about how they learn and this includes a more teacher-centered approach to learning. Student resistance may become prevalent and teachers will need to consider this resistance when incorporating self-directed learning in their classrooms.

Terms & Concepts

Auto-didaxy: Auto-didaxy refers to self-instruction that takes place outside of a formal instructional setting, such as school.

Autonomous Learning: Autonomous learning is the self-management of one's own learning process.

Learning Self-Awareness: Learners who are successful in self-directed learning situations are "learning self-aware." They have an appreciation and understanding of how they learn, of their learning capabilities, and of the outcomes that they want to achieve (Robotham, 1995, p. 3).

Problem-Based Learning: In problem-based learning, students are given a problem to solve. They assess their learning needs, based on an analysis of the problem. These learning needs guide independent study during which students use a variety of resources.

Resistant Student: Resistant students are those students who are unwilling to accept active learning models of instruction. They may be unwilling to participate in self-directed learning because of their expectations of how teachers should impart knowledge.

Scaffolding: In scaffolding, a more knowledgeable person scaffolds, supports or facilitates a student's development.

Self-Directed Learner/Learning: A self-directed learner is a learner "who initiates a process to learn something particular and has the ability and desire to be self-directed" in their learning experience. Self-directed learning does not have to proceed from a specific planned curriculum, but can be promoted by individual learners who want to learn something on their own. They take "an active role in identifying and completing learning opportunities" (Martz and Manz, 1991, p. 5).

Underprepared Student: Underprepared students are those students who are not prepared for a particular learning process.

Bibliography

Akerlind, G., & Trevitt, A. (1999). Enhancing self-directed learning through educational technology: When students resist the change. Innovation in Educational Training International, 36, 96-106. Retrieved August 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Educational Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=1716628&site=ehost-live

Bartell, E. (1971). Initiating a self-directed learning program in the classroom. Education, 91, 247-250. Retrieved August 31, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4708149&site=ehost-live

Boud, D. (Ed.). Developing student autonomy in learning. London: Kogan Page.

Brookfield, S. (1986). Understanding and facilitating adult learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Candy, P. (1991). Self-direction for life-long learning. San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.

Della-Dora, D., McGovern, G., & Wells, J. (1980, March). Self-directed learning. Educational Leadership, 7, 525-527. Retrieved August 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=7731616&site=ehost-live

Della-Dora, D., & Wells, J. (1980). Teaching for self-directed learning. Theory Into Practice, 19, 134-141. Retrieved August 20, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5203867&site=ehost-live

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Dewey, J. (1938). Experience and education. London: Collier MacMillan.

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Field, L. (1989). An investigation into the structure, validity and reliability of Guglielmino's Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale. Adult Education Quarterly, 39, 125-139.

Greveson, G., & Spencer, J. (2005). Self-directed learning: The importance of concepts and contexts. Medical Educator, 39, 348-349. Retrieved August 29, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=16510279&site=ehost-live

Guglielmino, P. (1977). Development of the Self-Directed Learning Readiness Scale. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, U of Microfilm International, Ann Arbor, MI.

Hughes, C. (1999). The dire in self-directed learning. Adult learning, 11, 7-10. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=2573235&site=ehost-live

Jones, A., & Kember, D. (1994). Approaches to learning and student acceptance of self- study packages. Educational and Training Technology International, 30, 32-28.

Knapper, C., & Cropley, A. (1991). Lifelong learning and higher education. London: Kogan Page.

Knowles, M. (1975). Self-directed learning: A guide for learners and teachers. Cambridge, MA: Adult Education Company.

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McGaghie, W., & Menges, R. (1975, April). Assessing self-directed learning. Teaching of Psychology, 2, 56-60. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6799533&site=ehost-live

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Ryan, G. (1993, March). Student perceptions about self-directed learning in a professional course implementing problem-based learning. Studies in Higher Education, 18, 53-64. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online

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Schmidt, H. (2000, April). Assumptions underlying self-directed learning may be false. Medical Education, 34, 243-245. Retrieved August 22, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5519301&site=ehost-live

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Taylor, I. (1997). Developing learning in professional education: Partnerships for practice. Buckingham, UK: Society for Researchers into Higher Education and Open UP.

Tough, A. (1971). The adult's learning projects. Toronto, Canada: Ontario Institute for Studies in Education.

West, R. E., Williams, G. S., & Williams, D. D. (2013). Improving problem-based learning in creative communities through effective group evaluation. Interdisciplinary Journal of Problem-Based Learning, 7, 1-42. Retrieved December 18, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90663291&site=ehost-live

Self-Directed Learning

On this Page

Subject Terms

Self-Directed Learning

Teaching Methods > Self-Directed Learning

Overview

Educators’ Views of Self-Directed Learning

History

Applications

Teaching SDL

Using SDL for Business Training

Problem-Based Learning & SDL

Assessment Methods & Tools

Further Insights

Classroom Climate

Learning to Become Self-Directed

Reflection

Reducing Student Resistance

Viewpoints

Barriers to Self-Directed Learning

Underprepared or Resistant Students

Terms & Concepts

Bibliography

Suggested Reading