Self-Regulated Learning (SRL)

Abstract

Self-regulated learning (SRL) is the cognitive process of learning based on two main elements: metacognition and motivation. It requires more than mere motivation. SRL includes important personal factors such as autonomy and self-control, as well as self-efficacy beliefs and agency. As with all learning strategies, SRL has significant advantages and disadvantages, and is constantly modified by innovative technology and pedagogical trends. Self-regulating strategies are applicable to all levels of the learning process.

Overview

The term "self-regulation" refers to a field of study that examines the thoughts, emotions, and actions connected to reaching personal goals (Merino & Aucock, 2015). In the field of pedagogy, the concept of self-regulated learners refers to those who are active participants in their own learning process, from cognitive, motivational, and behavioral standpoints. Self-regulated learning, then, includes not only cognitive and emotional elements, but also contextual factors. SRL, in general, is often divided into cognition and metacognition, strategizing or strategic action, and motivation (Liu, Lan, & Ho, 2014).

Self-regulation is a complex process and involves different cognition, motivation, and learning strategies. Self-regulated students take control of their own learning process and evaluate their own learning outcomes. In other words, they take responsibility for their own learning. Successful self-regulated learners develop an awareness of different learning strategies and use them effectively (Sen, Yilmaz, & Geban, 2015).

There are, then, many strategies and processes involved in SRL, so that students are able to avail themselves of a number of these in order to successfully direct their learning experiences. These strategies, for example, may be based on cognition, motivation, and behavior. Cognitive strategies relate to activities directly related to the learning process. Among these are a factor known as metacognition, which refers to the awareness developed by learners of their thinking process and their knowledge. Motivational strategies are related to important elements, such as efficacy of goal settings and self-efficacy beliefs. Behavioral strategies include practical actions such as time management. For example, a successful learner will control efficiently for the time spent on learning activities versus the time spent on social or leisure activities (Merino & Aucock, 2015).

In order to be an accomplished self-regulated learner, an individual must be able to realistically set goals for mastering a subject, researching and selecting the best strategy in order to reach those goals, and finally evaluate if the goals have been reached. In other words, students should be able to follow the required steps in the process of planning, implementing, managing, reflecting, and evaluating steps required (Merino and Aucock, 2015).

Experts have studied the emotional skills essential to a successful process of self-regulation, and determined that autonomy and control play a crucial role in a successful SRL experience. Autonomy demands from a student an active attitude in the process of learning, besides the development of the skills needed for an effective acquisition of knowledge. The latter would be linked to the element of control, so that the individual can regulate and direct these activities on his or her own. Autonomy and control, then, are crucial components of self-regulation and are intrinsically tied to the elements of metacognition cognition, motivation, behavior, and context essential to the process of self-regulation.

Cognition is a set of mental processes that drive the learning experience. Elements such as memory, reasoning, judgment, problem-solving skills, and the ability to decipher meaning undergird cognition and are intrinsically tied to specific learning strategies. Learning strategies, in turn, are the methods and practices used by learners in order to gain knowledge. The ability to strategize is very important to SRL. Experts have shown that the highest performing self-regulated learners consistently use a higher number of strategies than lower-performing learners. Another important concept linked to cognition is Metacognition. Metacognition involves the ability to think about cognitive processes and self-reflection. It is linked to activities such as self-evaluating the progression toward a goal and understanding the ways in which one learns best, such as planning and feedback.

Further Insights

Most theoretical models of SRL include the personal components of expectations, values, and affective elements. Expectation, for example, refers to personal abilities or skills required to perform a task. Value refers to beliefs about the importance of a task. And affective elements are emotions or reactions related to tasks, as well as self-perceptions that a learner may have. Affectivity would also include cognitive and motivational elements.

Experts often break down SRL into a series of phases. For example, a first phase usually includes goal-setting and strategic planning, as well as beliefs about self-efficacy and a classification of the importance of different tasks. This is followed by a phase that focuses on performance, which would include elements of self-control and strategy implementation. It is often followed by a self-reflection phase, which includes elements such as personal feelings of satisfaction or dissatisfaction with the outcome of the learning experience. Within this amply general framework, numerous theoretical models for SRL exist.

Two of the best-known models for SRL are Zimmerman’s Model and the Pintrich Model. Barry Zimmerman, an educational psychology expert, has argued that self-regulation is a set of self-management learning skills. This implies a learning process that includes planning thoughts, emotions, and actions in an organized manner aimed at achieving a personal set of goals. In Zimmerman’s model, there are three main elements essential to the SRL process: behavior, person, and environment. Zimmerman proposes self-regulation as a process that includes three cyclical phases: forethought phase, performance control phase, and self-reflection.

Learners self-regulate in order to achieve goals, but they do it differently. Therefore, there are differences in performance level. For example, a person with poorly developed self-regulation is often reactive rather than proactive. Reactive methods do not provide an effective goal structure. Low levels of self-regulation can be caused by myriad factors, including motivational problems and learning problems. The latter could include, for example, learning disorders or low reading comprehension skills.

Paul R. Pintrich, a renowned educational psychologist, also suggests that SRL is divided into phases, which he termed forethought, monitoring, control, and reaction and reflection. A series of events occurs during each of these phases in a learner’s cognition, motivation, behavior, and context. Each phase, as well, is assigned a self-regulating process, and he places the function of metacognition within those of cognition, rather than without, as other theorists have done (Schunk, Meece, & Pintrich, 2013).

Other educational scholars have applied the elements of SRL to collaborative learning. Collaborative learning allows learners to work on the learning process with others, engaging in dialogue, negotiation and consensus during the experience. These have become of greater interest to educational researchers in the context of growing computer-mediated learning and Internet-based learning contexts. The same elements of SRL apply through the use of strategic action—planning, coordinating, and monitoring one another’s work—while allowing students to retain a degree of autonomy and control of their own learning process. Recent research, however, shows that it is not enough to assign students tasks to work out in groups. Experts warn that technologies offer the opportunities for collaborative learning, but the experience depends significantly on the degree of students’ engagement and participation in the group work dynamic. The role of technology then is that of supporting and facilitating the collaborative processes, but cannot replace motivation and proactive participation (Onrubia, Rochera & Engel, 2015).

Nevertheless, the Internet has become the most important medium and technology by which students at all levels communicate with one another, constantly connected to and through the Internet by such devices as smartphones, laptops, and tablets. These instruments are increasingly being roped into the learning experience and linked to the cognitive aspects of SRL. They have been shown to motivate students to become more autonomous learners, and to help them develop the necessary skills to control and monitor their own learning, as well as acquire more skills and knowledge. Most important, technology allows students to autonomously seek collaborative learning experiences transnationally, such as second language learning opportunities outside the traditional classroom context. The more students engage in technology-based SRL, the more they tend to learn to control and regulate their own learning experience (Liu, Lan & Ho, 2014).

Viewpoints

An important aspect of SRL strategies is that they are under the control of the learner, who implements them consciously in order to guide the actions that lead to specific learning goals. A crucial element in these strategies is the cognitive processes it rests upon. There are, of course, learning tasks based upon automatic repetition, which do not require profound levels of conscious engagement. Effective SRL strategies, however, are deliberate, planned, conscientious, and engaged learning activities. In other words, they are learning activities that are applied to a task intentionally, rather than mindlessly; they are not reduced to mindless sequences. The key aspect of such learning strategies is its intentionality, which implies the development of an action plan rather than a mechanized routine.

These strategies would have an intentional aspect; they imply, then, an action plan rather than just the development of a mechanical and routine technique. Learning strategies also have many aspects; they may be based on motivation, behavior, cognition, technology and collaboration, among others.

• Motivational strategies. Self-regulated learning experts posit that motivation is at the core of a student’s learning success. Motivated students invest the necessary personal resources—such as time and effort—in order to learn. They are more likely to reach higher levels of learning and skill-development. Experts also find that self-efficacy beliefs are very important to the development of a robust motivation. A student with strong self-efficacy beliefs trusts his or her capacity to face challenges and achieve goals. Goal-setting is considered one of the most important steps in the process of achieving goals successfully, because they act as a guiding light, have a motivating and energizing effect, and encourage problem solving and critical thinking skills (Merino & Aucock, 2015).
• Behavioral Strategies. These focus on the effective management of time and environment. Good time-management skills, according to experts, are a solid way to predict successful academic performance. When learners lack time-management skills, they have problems setting goals, prioritizing tasks, developing timely strategies, setting deadlines, and calculating time lines to achieve goals. They also have problems managing their social and physical environments, such as selecting adequate study areas and managing their social life. Although some experts argue that weak behavioral strategies may be affected by inherent characteristics, such as learning disabilities or attention deficit disorders, many other experts maintain that such students often benefit greatly from learning time-management and study skills methods (Merino & Aucock, 2015).
• Cognitive Strategies. Self-regulated learners face a wide variety of challenges. These can include, for example, a lack of academic support and social structure, such as when they transition from high school to the college environment. In college, the system often changes from the traditional teacher-directed environment of high school, to one centered on student agency; that is, a system in which students are suddenly faced with having to manage and organize their own learning. Therefore, in addition to having to perform well in standardized exams and other academic expectations, students must develop new learning skills. These may run the gamut from the emotional, such as anxiety management, to techniques such as time-management and self-directed study skills (Merino & Aucock, 2015).
• Role Modeling. Some self-regulation experts argue that self-efficacy beliefs are set in early childhood; others, however, believe that they begin to form at that stage, but continue to be shaped by the experiences and events to which the individual is exposed throughout his or her life. In short, people continue to build upon and develop skills as long as they live. Role modeling is believed to be a core pillar in the formation of self-efficacy. Individuals continuously learn from observing the behavior and performance of others. These behaviors serve as maps for future attitudes and behavior. Moreover, learners can acquire new skills based on their level of self-efficacy, and this, in turn, builds up their self-efficacy beliefs. Based on sociocultural theory tenets, some role modeling approaches have an expert role model the appropriate skills for the learners; next, students perform guided practice until they internalize the skills and behaviors and are ready to perform them on their own. The success of these strategies relies to a great extent on the motivation of the students and the extent to which students perceive the role model as similar to themselves (Merino & Aucock, 2015).
• Web-based Technology for Learning. New technologies, including mobile technology, electronic tablets and readers, and laptops have become ubiquitous and an important resource for students. On one hand, students may use their instruments to regulate their learning; on the other hand, such devices can prove a source of distraction. Self-regulation, then, proves crucial for students to turn technologies into efficient learning tools. In general, however, web-based technology can prove a support to SRL, because the learner is in control. It also serves to strengthen autonomy and agency or intentionality and, as numerous studies show, it is a technology that proves deeply engaging to students at all levels. As with the role modeling techniques, web-based learning falls within the framework of sociocultural theory, in which learners collaborate in building up their own skill sets and knowledge by engaging in interactions either with others or with the virtual system itself (Liu, Lan, & Ho, 2014).
• Collaborative Work. Collaborative work has been garnering a great deal of attention from self-regulation experts, who examine the ways in which the autonomous or independent aspect of self-regulated student learning intersects with group regulation of learning and work. This focuses on the group regulating their own learning and collaboration process. It may seem, on the face of it, a contradictory aspect of self-regulation, given that autonomous work is at the core of the self-regulating philosophy. However, group regulation in this sense involves the main elements of SRL, such as cognitive and metacognitive aspects—for example, planning, monitoring, and evaluating group learning. Moreover, it has aspects of both individual and social natures, since each learner must self-regulate his or her learning and work, as well as share group regulation with other members. Several studies highlight the complexity of these regulation processes and the intersecting dynamics of self-regulated learning with collaborative learning (Onrubia, Rocher & Engel, 2015).

Most self-regulation experts believe that a successful self-regulated learner is he or she who is capable of making decisions that regulate the choice and use of the different forms of knowledge, such as planning, organizing, controlling, and evaluating (cognitive and metacognitive aspects); able to develop self-efficacy beliefs and competencies, and is interested in the task (motivational aspect); and is capable of choosing, structuring, and creating environments that optimize learning, knows when to seek advice, and is not easily distracted (behavioral aspect). Students who engage in SRL benefit from developing and strengthening important cognitive and practical competencies, such monitoring, strategies for learning, goal orientation, and goal accomplishment.

Terms & Concepts

Cognitive: Mental awareness and processes pertaining to understanding, knowledge, memory, reasoning and other mental capacities.

Competency: The knowledge, skills, and ability that enable a person to accomplish something successfully and in an efficient way.

Efficacy: The ability or potential of accomplishing a desired goal or effect.

Metacognition: Self-awareness and comprehension of personal thoughts and thought-processes.

Regulation: The process of controlling and managing actions, methods, and goals.

Self-Efficacy: The belief people have in their own ability to achieve tasks and goals.

Bibliography

Cleary, T. J. (2015). Self-Regulated Learning Interventions with at-risk youth: Enhancing adaptability, performance, and well-being. Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.

Germeroth, C., & Day-Hess, C. (Eds). (2013). Self-Regulated Learning for academic success: How do I help students manage their thoughts, behaviors, and emotions?. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Koh, J. (2015). The more the better? Examining choice and self-regulated learning strategies. International Journal of Learning: Annual Review, 21, 13–32. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=111652469&site=ehost-live

Liu, S. H-J., Lan, Y.-J., Ho, C.-Y. (2014). Exploring relationships between self-regulated vocabulary learning and web-based collaboration. Journal of Educational Technology and Society, 17(4), 404–419. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=99574682&site=ehost-live

Merino, A., & Aucock, M. (2015). The human element: Self-regulated learning skills and strategies through role-modelling and guided mastery. South African Journal of Higher Education, 29(2), 163–180. Retrieved December 12, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=110022516&site=ehost-live

Nilson, L. (2013). Creating self-regulated learners: Strategies to strengthen students’ self-awareness and learning skills. Sterling, VA: Stylus Publishing.

Onrubia, J., Rochera, M. J., & Engel, A. (2015). Promoting individual and group regulated learning in collaborative settings: An experience in higher education. Electronic Journal of Research in Educational Psychology, 13(1), 189–210. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=102414493&site=ehost-live

Schunk, D., Meece, J. R., & Pintrich, P. R. (2013). Motivation in education: Theory, research and applications. New York, NY: Pearson.

Sen, S., Yilmaz, A., & Geban, O. (2015). The effects of process oriented guided inquiry learning environment on students’ self-regulated learning skills. Problems of Education in the 21st Century 66, 54–66. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=110172564&site=ehost-live

Vasalio, S. (2013). Self-Regulated Learning: An application of critical educational psychology. Frankfurt and Main, Germany: Peter Lang Publishing.

Suggested Reading

Cho, K., & Cho, M. (2013). Training of self-regulated learning skills on a social network system. Social Psychology of Education, 16(4), 617–634. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=92866099&site=ehost-live

Puustinen, M., & Pulkkinen, L. (n.d). Models of Self-regulated Learning: A review. Scandinavian Journal of Educational Research, 45(3), 269–286. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=5202998&site=ehost-live

Xu, M., Kushner Benson, S., Mudrey-Camino, R., & Steiner, R. (2010). The relationship between parental involvement, self-regulated learning, and reading achievement of fifth graders: A path analysis using the ECLS-K database. Social Psychology of Education, 13(2), 237–269. Retrieved December 13, 2015 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=sih&AN=51088657&site=ehost-live