Student Governments

Student Governments are present today in the majority of K-12 schools and throughout higher education. Student governments are usually extracurricular activities available to students within schools. They present opportunities for student leadership and are one possible facet of school-based management. Student governments are responsible for certain components of school organization and governance. Their forms and responsibilities may be different at various grade levels. Students who participate in student government tend to have higher GPAs and fewer unexcused absences, and tend to be more informed about politics.

Keywords Extracurricular Activity; Leadership Skills; Leadership Studies; Organizational Activities; Policy-Making; School-Based Management; Social Activities; Students' Association; Student Council; Student Leadership

School Administration & Policy > Student Governments

Overview

A student government is a group within a school that is responsible for certain facets of school organization and governance. Usually categorized as an extracurricular activity, student governments are run primarily by students. Their functions are different from school to school; for example, they may act as a liaison between school administrations and students, representing the student body views regarding institutional, local, or national issues. Or, they may oversee specific activities such as fundraising or student clubs. Faculty, staff, and community members may also participate in student governments, in various capacities, depending on the educational institution. Student governments in the United States are common at all school levels today – elementary, middle, and high school, as well as at colleges and universities. The roles they play in the schools and their communities are diverse – some have large budgets and great power in their learning communities; others are smaller and hold modest sway over school policymaking.

Student Governance in Public Schools

Student participation in governance of their educational institution has a long and diverse history. In K-12 education there are a variety of examples throughout educational history in which students have been involved in school management. Vineyard and Poole (1930) note that at Plato's Academy, pupils elected students for certain school tasks every ten days. Other European schools decreed that students be allowed to participate in school governance side by side with the administration. Structures included senates made up of representatives elected by students in 16th century Germany, schools that assigned "monitors" (an older student as an assistant teacher) in 18th century India, and assemblies that were chosen each month in 18th century America. Monitorial schools also found their way to America, and became a tool to teach students how to handle affairs that would prepare them for life after school (McGown, 1944).

The goals behind student participation in school governance today vary widely. In the United States, K-12 participation in student government is often used as a tool for civic training – helping students understand the process of democracy, rather than giving students actual power to influence policy. Goals also include teaching teamwork and participation, as well as the ideals of a democratic state (Vineyard & Poole, 1930).

Student Governance in Higher Education

Student governance in higher education began as university learning expanded. Universities in their early days were very loosely organized – interested students traveled to those individuals who were willing to teach them. By the 13th century, the numbers of students and teachers had increased so dramatically that improved guidelines and management was necessary, and began within the institutions (McGown, 1944). The convening of student nations at universities in Bologna beginning in the 12th century, which brought together students from similar regions, is one of the earliest examples of student governance. These nations elected representatives who helped run the day-to-day activities of the school (McGown, 1944).

In the history of American higher education, the first institution known to encourage student participation was the College of William & Mary, in the late 18th century. The students elected representatives to a council who handled discipline issues. Other examples of student governments were established at Oberlin College, founded in 1833, which not only gained recognition for admitting all students, regardless of race, but also allowed significant participation from students regarding management issues (McGown, 1944). Other forms of student organization and governance in higher education were organized by students due to dissatisfaction with characteristics of life within college institutions. For example, the concept of fraternities sprouted from poor living conditions, literary clubs sprung from the lack of library resources, and athletic teams formed of students seeking a respite from the heavy emphasis on classroom learning (Hodgekinson, 1971, as cited by Miller & Nadler, 2006). These organizations were also precursors to student governments as we know them today.

In the 1900s, student governments began playing a larger role in the social aspects of colleges and universities, and by the 1960s students at many institutions were demanding increased student participation regarding the decision-making process at schools across the country (Hodgekinson, 1971, as cited by Miller & Nadler, 2006). After World War II, the rapid growth of colleges and universities in the United States fueled the expansion of student governments to help operate these schools (Mackey, III, 2006). The highly politicized atmosphere of the 1960s led to increased demand for student involvement (Miller & Nadler, 2006). In the 1970s however, interest in student governments diminished, and many disappeared (Mackey, III, 2006). Since the 1970s student governments have become prevalent again in all levels and types of education.

Student Governments Today

Today, student governments are present in nearly all schools across the country, in K-12 public schools, private schools and in higher education. Factors that increased the number of student governments include the rise of local, state, and national organizations that supported student governance, the growth of extracurricular activities, and the emphasis on teaching leadership in schools (McGown, 1944). There are many parallels to be found between the American government and student councils. Many have a written Constitution and bylaws, outlining the rights and responsibilities of all parties involved. Members of student governments are often elected by their peers, and election procedures may include debates, speeches, and various ceremonies. Minutes are taken during meetings, and reported to peers, administrators, and/or other bodies that the council may represent or work with (McGown, 1944).

Applications

General Organizational Structure

There are many permutations of student government organization – it is unlikely there are two student governments in the entire country that are the same. Student governments may differ in the number of people involved, the types of responsibilities and tasks that they are responsible for, and the configuration of the organization (McGown, 1944).

Titles & Offices

Titles and offices organize student governments internally. Possible offices or titles include President, Vice-president, Secretary, Treasurer, and representatives. Individuals involved may also include leaders from various clubs, living quarters, or homerooms. All of these individuals will have specified roles depending on the responsibilities of the student government:

• The President and vice-president are most often responsible for planning meetings and running them in an efficient manner while delegating duties.

• The secretary will record minutes, attend to correspondence needed, and create documents.

• The treasurer is responsible for overseeing any financial activities of the student governments or the groups that the student government manages and oversees. For example, in many colleges, student governments are responsible for distributing money from student activities budgets to various clubs and organizations. The treasurer acts as the point person for all of these discussions and transactions.

• Other officers may represent the interests of their homeroom, club, or housemates.

A student government may be made up of officers through election or appointment. When student government officers are elected, they may be elected at the beginning of a year for that year, or at the end of the year, to be inaugurated the following year. Schools may also hold elections twice, to account for the cyclical nature of education institutions (McGown, 1944).

The structure of a student government will depend upon the school and its needs. In K-12 student governments often elect representatives from homerooms or classrooms, or by grade. In a more complex institution, such as a large university, there may be many other representatives from clubs, sports teams, or fraternities and sororities. The organization of a student council may be very simple to very complex. They may involve only a few students, or hundreds of students. Student governments may be directly overseen by faculty or administration, or may be largely unsupervised. These distinctions are different from school to school and grade level to grade level (McGown, 1994).

Responsibilities

The responsibilities afforded to student governments can vary from informal to very specific. Informal councils are marked by limited authority and a lack of power to determine policy. Other councils may be extremely detailed in their duties (McGown, 1944). For example, the management of student social events, as well as managing and organizing clubs may fall under the jurisdiction of a student government. A student government with these duties would need many members with specific tasks, and a variety of specific policies to deal with the myriad of situations that could surface. In a case study of schools in the United States, Wittes, Chesler, and Crowfoot (1975) found high schools had many different ways of incorporating student governments into their communities. Some schools involved students heavily in decision making; others did not. The scope of responsibility of student governments can include:

• Managing clubs and student organizations,

• Fundraising,

• Social activities planning,

• Student discipline,

• Settling disputes, and

• As a forum for discussion of changes within the school.

College & University Student Government

The organizational structure of student governments in higher education institutions often have characteristics similar to that of the United States government, other nation's governments, or roles similar to what one might find in a corporation or business.

Student Government & the Administration

There are over 4,000 college and universities in the United States today. The students, faculty, and administrations at these institutions are enormously diverse, as are the student governments. Unlike most K-12 student governments, many student-governing bodies at colleges and universities hold a great deal of responsibility, and will often act as the student liaison between students and administrators and other school leaders. Many school administrations count on the student government to manage certain aspects of life on campus, and seek opinion from student councils when making important policy decisions. When specific problems or issues arise, the school administration may gather a special council that includes students. The responsibilities of student governments in higher education institutions today may include, but are not limited to:

• Representing the ideas and beliefs of the student body while acting as a liaison between students and teachers and administrators;

• Distributing money to various student organizations from a budget

• Organizing and sponsoring social and entertainment activities; and

• Acting as the governing body for student organizations (Love & Miller, 2003; Miller & Nadler, 2006).

Elections

The process by which students are elected or designated to serve on student governments differs from institution to institution. Often, elections occur on campus in which the student body may vote on they deem best to represent their interests. Campaigning is common, at all levels, but procedures may differ school to school.

Changing Student Populations

Another important role of many student governments today includes representing changing student bodies. Today, many college campuses house increasingly diverse student bodies whose requirements and views adjust with each new generation of students. Student governments often bridge the gap and school administrations often look to these councils to represent these changes (Miller & Nadler, 2006). Schools may even have several student governments within the institution. For example, universities may have a separate student government for undergraduates and graduate students.

Public School Student Government

The majority of elementary, middle, and high schools across the country have some form of student government. These governing bodies are often loosely modeled after the American system of government. More senior positions are usually reserved for older students, and younger students may act as class representatives. For example, in an elementary school, a sixth-grader may serve as President, a fifth-grader as Vice-President, and fourth-graders as Secretary and Treasurer. These officers will be elected by the entire school, while Representatives will be elected from each classroom. Middle and high school governments may feature a set of officers from each grade level. An adult – most often a teacher or faculty member at that school, may oversee a student government in K-12 schools (McGown, 1944).

Viewpoints

Researchers do not necessarily agree upon the benefits of participation in school government for students and educational institutions. The evolution of student governments and their roles in schools has been a long process. Today, allegations are often heard that student governments have many flaws: they do not represent the student body, they have no real power, and that elections have degenerated into a popularity contest more than an exercise in democracy (Mackey, 2006; Miller & Nadler, 2006). While there may be some truth to these accusations, there are also several studies that link participation in student government to certain benefits. School governments are usually classified as a student activity. Marsh (1988) conducted a study in which he studied post-secondary outcomes related to having participated in student activities in high school. Academic factors such as academic achievement and college attendance were measured. The study concluded that students benefited from participation depending on the particular activity, but involvement in too many activities was detrimental. Specifically, participation in student government was consistently linked positively to later outcomes.

Benefits for Public School Students

In 1992, 96.5% of public high school seniors recruited for a study reported that they had access to student government as an activity (O'Brien & Rollefson, 1995). Furthermore, the difference in availability between less affluent and more affluent public schools was insignificant. Niemi & Chapman (1998) used the factors of attendance, academic achievement, and whether the student expected to attend college as markers for successful school participation. They found that students who participated in school activities had lower rates of unexcused absences and skipped classes, higher GPAs, scored higher on standardized exams, and expected to earn at least a bachelor's degree at a higher rate than their peers who did not participate in school activities.

Student government may also act as a venue in which to educate students about the ideals and practices of democracy, as well as teach values and practices regarding leadership and cooperation. Characteristics of civic development include "political knowledge, attention to politics, political participation skills, political efficacy, and tolerance of diversity" (Niemi & Chapman, 1998, page iv). A study researching the civic development of high school students found that students who participated in student government "tend to be more knowledgeable about politics, more confident in their participation skills, more confident that they understand politics, and more tolerant of public libraries carrying controversial books" (Niemi & Chapman, 1998, page v) compared to students who did not participate in student government, even after controlling for a variety of factors.

The effect of participation in extracurricular activities has also been linked to lower rates of alcohol and drug use. Results from a study surveying over 5,600 students, grades 5 through 12, suggest that students who participate in school activities were less likely to use drugs, tobacco, or alcohol than their peers who did not participate in extracurricular activities (Cooley, Nelson, & Thompson, 1992).

Benefits at the College Level

Student governments at the higher education level often hold much more power and responsibility than at the K-12 level, and at many institutions have become largely accepted by administrations and faculty as an important body to cooperate with in shaping school policy (Miller & Nadler, 2006). However, there has been little concrete evidence that participating in student governments is effective at teaching participation and citizenship (Bray, 2006). While research results seem promising, and implies a positive link between participation in student government and high achievement, we cannot be sure whether the strong positive correlation is due to the activity (in this case, student government) actually improving student outcomes, or whether students who would have done well regardless are choosing to participate more often in the student governments.

Building Leadership Skills

Many student governments are not necessarily run effectively, nor do they have actual power. However, students may benefit from teaching leadership development through the practices of student government. Leadership development is a developing field that focuses on building management skills through a variety of activities, as a central part of the curriculum (Mangan, 2002, as cited by Langdon, 2005). Shoenberg (1992, as cited in Langdon, 2005) challenges various educational institutions to involve students in governance of a school, regardless of how much actual power the student government holds. Burns (1978, as cited in Langdon, 2005) argued that the United States is in the midst of a leadership crisis – not enough individuals have the proficiency to manage others. Participation in student governments may be a positive tool for teaching leadership skills.

Gender & Culture

Participation in student government does appear to differ across race and gender lines. Davila and Mora (2007) conducted a study measuring civic engagement among high school students, using the measures of involvement in community service or student government. They found that females tend to have higher participation rates than males, and that Asians had the highest participation rates, with Hispanics the least involved. Given what we know about the achievement gap between students of different backgrounds in the United States, this information could have important policy implications for schools that serve a diverse population of students. More research is necessary on the impact of participation in student government on students of various backgrounds.

Conclusion

Student governments are prevalent at all levels of education today. Langdon (2005) challenges schools to empower these organizations, and argues that there are ways to create more effective school governments if the group is lacking in motivation or influence. Cohen (1998, as cited by Langdon, 2005) suggests forming associations statewide to petition to decision-making bodies such as administrators or school boards to give students of all ages a voice in school policy making. Shoenberg (1992, as cited by Langdon, 2005) argues that encouraging student involvement is crucial to developing leadership skills.

The concrete benefits of student governments are uncertain; however, there are many ways in which a student government is important and useful to an institution. Some teach students leadership skills and demonstrate the processes of a government – elections, campaigns, and debate. Others are crucial to monitoring and responding to generational changes in student bodies and their needs. For example, students who attend an institution that has a large commuter or parent population have very different needs from a residential four-year college that serves mostly 18-24 year old traditional students. Student governments can be involved heavily in policy-making; others have minimal sway over these issues. The essential features of successful school governments are to ensure students have support from administration and staff, that their goals and missions are clear, and that roles and cooperation between governing parties are clearly defined. Research shows that participation in student government is highly correlated with a number of desirable outcomes. While correlation is not causation, student governments can be a useful tool for teaching and reaching students in different ways, while empowering students to think about and take part in important discussions.

Terms & Concepts

Extracurricular Activity: Extracurricular activities are activity that is not required by the school, such as sports teams or clubs.

Leadership Studies: Leadership studies is a course of study that helps students build management skills through activities directly built into the curriculum.

Policy-Making: Policy-making is the process by which schools make decisions; may be influenced by outside forces, such as school district offices, and/or inside forces, such as administrators, faculty, and students.

School-Based Management: School-based management is a form of school management that decentralizes certain duties and responsibilities to those closest to the school.

Social Activities: Social activities are events or activities that take place outside of the classroom that allow students to socialize with peers, such as concerts, socials, or speakers.

Students' Association: Students' association is another term used for student government. The student government at a school may be called the Students' Association.

Student Council: Student council is another term used for student government. The student government at a school may be called the Student Council.

Student Leadership: Student leadership occurs when student manage or run an activity or organization in a school. Examples may include activities in the classroom such as debate, or extracurricular activities such as captaining a sports team, or serving as student body President.

Bibliography

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Brasof, M. (2011). Student input improves behavior, fosters leadership. Phi Delta Kappan, 93, 20-24. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=66477539&site=ehost-live

Bray, N.J. (2006). Effects and Assessment of Student Involvement in Campus. In M.T. Miller & D.P. Nadler (Ed.), Student Governance And Institutional Policy: Formation And Implementation (pp. 19-32). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Burns, J.M. (1978). Leadership. New York: Harper & Row.

Cohen, A.M. (1998). The shaping of American higher education: Emergence and growth on the contemporary system. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.

Cooley, V., Henriksen, L., Nelson, C., & Thompson, J. (1995). A study to determine the effect of extracurricular participation on student alcohol and drug use in secondary schools. Journal of Alcohol and Drug Education, 40 , 71-87. Retrieved August 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9505030206&site=ehost-live

Davila, A., & Mora, M.T. (2007). Do gender and ethnicity affect civic engagement and academic progress. CIRCLE Working Paper #53. Center for Information and Research on Civic Learning and Engagement. Retrieved September 21, 2007, from www.civicyouth.org.

Hodgkinson, H.L. (1971). Institutions in transition: A profile of change in higher education. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.

Kuh, G.D., Schuh, J.H., & Witt, E.J. (1991). Involving colleges: Successful approaches to fostering student learning and development outside the classroom. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.

Langdon, E.A. (2005). Student governance and leadership. In R.L. Ackerman (Ed.), Student freedom revisited: Contemporary issues & perspectives (pp. 138-149). Washington, D.C.: NASPA-Student Affairs Administrators in Higher Education.

Levine, A., & Cureton, J.S. (1998). When hope and fear collide: A portrait of today's college student. San Francisco: Josey-Bass.

Love, R., & Miller, M. (2003). Increasing student participation in self governance: A comparison of graduate and undergraduate student perceptions. College Student Journal, 37 , 532-534. Retrieved August 24, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=12104583&site=ehost-live

McGown, H.C. (1944). The student council. New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, Inc.

Mackey, R. (2006). The role of a typical student government. In M.T. Miller & D.P. Nadler (Eds.), Student Governance And Institutional Policy: Formation And Implementation (pp. 62-68). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Mangan, K. (2002). Leading the way in leadership. The Chronicle of Higher Education, 48 , A10-A12. Retrieved August 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6778656&site=ehost-live

Marsh, H.W. (1988). Extracurricular activities: A beneficial extension of the traditional curriculum or a subversion of academic goals. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 301578). Retrieved August 10, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://eric.ed.gov/ERICWebPortal/custom/portlets/recordDetails/detailmini.jsp?_nfpb=true&_&ERICExtSearch_SearchValue_0=ED301578&ERICExtSearch_SearchType_0=eric_accno&accno=ED301578

Miles, J. M. (2011). Reflections of student government association leaders: Implications for advisors. College Student Journal, 45, 324-332. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=61863662&site=ehost-live

Miller, M. T., & Nadler, D. P. Student involvement in governance: Rationale, problems, and opportunities. In M. T. Miller & D. P. Nadler (Eds.), Student Governance and Institutional Policy: Formation and Implementation (pp. 9-18). Charlotte, NC: Information Age Publishing.

Niemi, R. G., & Chapman, C. (1998). The civic development of 9th through 12th grade students in the United States: 1996. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

O'Brien, E., & Rollefson, M. (1995). Extracurricular participation and student engagement. Washington, D.C.: National Center for Education Statistics.

Shelly, B. (2011). Bonding, bridging, and boundary breaking: The civic lessons of high school student activities. Journal of Political Science Education, 7, 295-311. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=63884225&site=ehost-live

Smith, J. (1951). Student councils for our times: Principles & practices. NY: Teachers College, Columbia University.

Vineyard, A. M., & Poole, C. F. (1930). Student participation in school government. NY: A.S. Barnes and Company Incorporated, 1930.

Wittes, G., Chesler, J., & Crowfoot, D. (1975). Student power: Practice & promise. New York: Citation Press, 1975

Suggested Reading

Cuyjet, M. J., & Terrell, M. C. (1994). Developing Students Government Leadership: New Directions in Student Services. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Morrell, S. A. & Morrell, R. C. (1986). Learning through student activities. In P.S. Breivik (Ed.), Managing Programs for Learning Outside the Classroom: New Directions for Higher Education (pp. 77-87). San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Roberts, D. C. & Ullom, C. (1989). Student leadership program model. NASPA Journal, 27, 67-70.

Rudolph, F. (1962). American college and university: A history. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.

Vaars, J. (2005). Student Government and Class Activities: Leaders of Tomorrow (Cocurricular Activities Their Values and Benefits) (Library Binding). Broomall, PA: Mason Crest Publishers.