Student Mentoring

This article explores mentoring relationships for at-risk youth with an emphasis on the guiding principles of effective mentoring programs and the steps necessary to initiate such programs for students K-12. Discussion focuses on the definition of a mentoring relationship, individuals engaged in such relationships; research based benefits of participation in mentoring partnerships, specific examples of successful mentoring programs, and recommended strategies for application in the K-12 educational and community setting. Specific programs highlighted include Big Brothers Big Sisters, Healthy Kids Mentoring Program, Architect, Construction Management, and Engineering (ACE), and more general peer-tutoring and peer-assistance models.

Keywords At-risk Youth; Architect, Construction Management, &Engineering (ACE) Mentor Program; Big Brothers Big Sisters; Healthy Kids Mentoring Program; Mentee; Mentor; Peer-Tutoring; Reciprocal Relationships

Overview

Definition of Mentoring Relationships

A mentoring relationship includes a student (mentee) and his or her mentor. Hinton (2006) describes a mentor as someone who serves in the role of a teacher, counselor, guide, protector or friend. There is a limited understanding of mentor education (teaching someone to be a mentor) in schools, and being a mentor is not recognized as a profession (Ulvik & Sunde, 2013). Programs abound, however, in business and, especially, education settings. A mentor and mentee are paired according to interests, personalities, common characteristics, and needs. According to Bernstein (2007), both individuals meet regularly on a one-on-one basis in scheduled meetings that are usually arranged by community organizations, corporations, or schools. Bernstein (2007) highlights that mentoring relationships help young people overcome obstacles and enhance their strengths. This sets them on a path of life equipped with the skills necessary to be successful. King et al. (2002) further illuminates the findings of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health that positive connections to adults or other students is the number one factor saving children from suicide, depression, substance abuse, early sexual involvement, and teen pregnancy.

Barton-Arwood et al. (2000) highlight three guiding principles that serve as a framework for the development of a mentoring program. First and foremost, mentoring programs allow individuals to build reciprocal relationships. Both the mentor and the mentee benefit greatly as each has something unique to share and gain from the experience. Secondly, Rockwell (1997; cited in Barton-Arwood et al., 2000) indicates that mentoring relationships are important for the purpose of completing tasks or achieving goals. Often, mentoring partnerships can take the form of peer-tutoring or peer-assistance dyads in which both partners work together toward a common goal or completion of a shared task or assignment. Lastly, Barton-Arwood et al. discuss the findings of Miller (1997) and Townsel (1997) that mentoring relationships help reinforce and model appropriate social values and norms such as honesty, sharing, and empathy.

King et al. (2002) indicate that mentoring programs offer safe environments, encouragement and support, empowering activities, and specific guidelines for behavior. Thus mentoring programs directly contribute to increased self-esteem, improved attitudes toward school, more appropriate behavior; fewer discipline issues and fewer absences from school. King et al. (2002) further highlight the fact that mentoring programs can assist students by focusing directly on academic achievement and connections between school, peers, family, and community. Factors influencing learning relate to sharing experiences, sharing information, reflection, observation and support. Additional categories include questioning and listening skills, and similarity and differences between both parties (Jones, 2013). Some mentoring programs are designed specifically to provide support and guidance to students who are considered at-risk and potentially likely to participate in negative, unhealthy behaviors.

King et al. (2002) indicate the overarching goal of a mentoring program is to reduce risky behavior by connecting a student in need to an individual from the school or community. The researchers indicate that mentors serve as positive role models while providing emotional, social and academic support. Britner et al. (2006) further assert that mentoring programs help students increase autonomy and assume responsibility for life choices. Ideal mentoring relationships capitalize on successful relationships to guide students toward increased responsibility for healthy, positive decisions. As students gain more autonomy and work toward making their own decisions, they continue to rely on the mentoring relationship for support and guidance.

According to Bernstein (2007), about 3 million young students in the United States participate in some type of a formal mentoring program. However, the need for additional mentoring relationships is astounding as the sheer number of youths who need a trusted role model is ever increasing due to pressures related to drugs, alcohol, sex, and other potentially risky behaviors. Furthermore, the number of young children and adults who would benefit from a mentoring relationship regardless of exposure to risky behaviors is vast and increasing. Mentoring relationships play a positive role in any student's life as long as they are willing and open to the experience.

Individuals Engaged in Mentoring Relationships

Britner et al. (2006) indicate that mentoring programs are most often designed for abused and neglected youth, youth who have disabilities, pregnant and parenting adolescents, juvenile offenders, and academically at-risk students. The majority of mentoring relationships taking place in school settings are designed for students who are academically at risk. Such students are usually paired with volunteer teachers, older students, or adults from the community. Mentors and mentees meet on a regular basis to work on academic activities such as homework, reading, writing, projects, etc. (Britner et al., 2006). Mentoring for academically at-risk students takes place in a structured time, usually at school, when mentor and mentee can work productively on academic tasks while building a strong relationship. Academic tasks provide a structure for the mentoring relationship and create opportunities for mentors and mentees to interact and learn from each other.

Students with disabilities are the second most common youth group in school settings in need of mentoring relationships. Britner et al. (2006) indicate that research on the effects of mentoring for students with disabilities is limited. However, most educators agree that pairing a disabled student with a mentor with similar disabilities provides a positive role model for students who need as many positive examples as possible. Many students with disabilities have very few role models with similar disabilities to learn from, look up to, and emulate. Such mentoring relationships provide the conditions necessary for students to gain self-esteem and confidence. Mentors demonstrate, by example, that physical limitations do not deter individuals from achieving their goals.

In some school settings, students placed in foster care or alternative home settings may benefit tremendously from mentoring relationships. Rhodes (2002) indicates that students who have been in multiple home placements, in particular, may experience difficulty when trusting adults and therefore great care and consideration must be given to ensure optimal matches for mentoring relationships. Furthermore, Rhodes (2002) asserts that it is not uncommon for frequent disruptions to occur in mentor relationships designed for youth who have alternative home placements simply due to the unfortunate instability in their lives.

Although these are the most common groups of students in school settings who are involved in mentoring relationships, students from all walks of life benefit from the strong relationships developed in mentoring programs. Mentoring programs are not always designed for students potentially exposed to risky behaviors. They can be developed for students entering college, considering a particular career, needing a specific type of role model, etc. The possibilities for mentoring relationships are endless; if there is a need in a student population, a mentoring program can be developed to address that need.

Benefits of Mentoring Relationships

Barton-Arwood et al. (2000) assert that the mentoring relationship provides benefits for both mentors and mentees. Specifically, mentees benefit from learning and practicing new skills with a trusted individual, experiencing a variety of models regarding appropriate behavior, interacting with a variety of individuals of different backgrounds, and learning and practicing the expected norms of the environment. Barton-Arwood et al. (2000) further explain that mentors benefit from improved self-esteem through modeling to another peer, increased opportunities to interact with peers other than themselves, and mastered social competence.

Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) discuss the multitude of research studies conducted regarding the benefits of mentoring for both mentors and mentees. Tierney & Grossman (1995) found that mentoring relationships improve student grades, relationships with others, and reduce drug and alcohol use. Mecca (2001) asserts that mentoring programs improve school attendance, deter teen pregnancy, and decrease the likelihood that students will participate in gangs. Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) further highlight studies conducted by Curtis & Hansen-Schwoebel (1999) indicating that mentoring relationships result in increasing levels of trust and self-confidence, improving attitudes toward school, maintaining better school attendance, increasing academic achievement, and improving relationships with adults and peers.

In a study conducted by Morrison et al. (2000) related to elementary school mentoring programs, results indicated that older student mentors had positive feelings about themselves because they helped younger students succeed. Furthermore, teachers involved in the mentoring program reported that older and younger children played more with each other on the playground as a direct result of experiences in the program and the formation of strong relationships. Morrison et al. (2000) further explain that the program helped to break down stereotypical gender barriers, increased students' sense of trust and increased the potential for learning. Quince & Layman (2006) conducted a study specifically related to a middle school mentoring program and corroborated the results indicated by Morrison et al. (2000). They found that all participants reported a boost in self-esteem, improved organization and communication skills, and an increasing sense of motivation, maturity and responsibility.

Connections

Britner et al. (2006) highlight the fact that mentoring relationships improve student connections between peers, family, school and community. Students build strong, positive relationships and increase levels of trust. Furthermore, mentoring encourages youth to accept additional formal and informal services from friends, family members, school personnel and community organizations. Once students experience the benefits of a mentoring relationship, they are more likely to become involved with and connected to other support programs. Enhanced connections are one of the most beneficial outcomes of mentoring relationships. When students feel connected to a positive wider community, they are far more likely to make good life decisions.

Self Esteem

As noted, a preponderance of evidence exists indicating that mentoring relationships improve self-esteem and self-confidence. Both mentors and mentees experience enhanced self-esteem because of the sense of responsibility and autonomy that both gain as a direct result of the relationship. High levels of self-esteem and self-confidence are related to positive decisions and healthy behavior.

Better School Attendance & Increased Academic Achievement

Bernstein (2007) indicates that mentored students attend school more regularly and exhibit more improved academic performance when compared to students without mentors. Barton-Arwood et al. (2000) further support the claim that mentored students demonstrate increased academic achievement as a result of positive social interactions. When students feel supported by peers or adults their self-esteem and school attendance increase, directly translating, for some students, into improved academic achievement and success.

Examples of Mentoring Programs

Big Brothers Big Sisters is likely the best-known mentoring program in the United States. Part of the mission of the program is to help children reach their potential through professionally supported, one-to-one relationships with mentors (Big Brothers Big Sisters, 2007). Program mentors work with children ages 6 through 18 to provide opportunities ranging from community based and school based mentoring partnerships to programs designed specifically for African American and Hispanic students as well as children of incarcerated adults (Big Brothers Big Sisters, 2007). Mentors and mentees participate in a variety of activities ranging from playing sports together, working on homework and playing board games to reading a book, taking a walk, or just simply talking (Big Brothers Big Sisters, 2007).

King et al. (2002) discusses the Healthy Kids Mentoring Program offered to elementary students in one Midwestern suburban public school. Mentors met with students twice a week for 90 minutes and focused on four components including relationship building, self-esteem enhancement, goal setting, and academic assistance (King et al., 2002). Results indicated significant contributions to academic achievement, self-esteem and connections between peers, families, the school and the community.

Some programs offer group mentoring. Bernstein (2007) discusses one such program, the Architect, Construction Management, and Engineering (ACE) Mentor Program. ACE operates in urban areas all over the United States and fosters relationships as students collaborate on a project in an architect's office. Mentors help the students write proposals, plan, design, and construct a final project. At the end of the year, groups build and present their final project.

Barton-Arwood et al. (2000) further highlight alternative Peer-based interventions similar to mentoring programs that have a specific academic focus such as peer-tutoring and peer-assisted learning. Both involve student partnerships designed to raise levels of academic achievement and to boost self-confidence. Additionally, they provide information regarding programs with more of a social focus such as peer mediation and peer modeling, both designed to enhance positive social relationships.

Applications

Researchers, King et al. (2002), Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) and Reese (2006) all provide practical suggestions for starting a mentoring program, maintaining the program, and evaluating success. There is no doubt that initiating a mentoring program can be a difficult task. However, with the right types of support, programs can start and benefits can be provided for those students in need.

King et al. (2002) and Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) stress the critical importance of obtaining administrative support from the board of education, superintendent, and building administrators before setting out to develop and implement a mentoring program. Administrative support is crucial as administrators hold the key to funding, schedules, and personnel who can assist with implementation. Also, building administrators (i.e. principals, assistant principals) serve as invaluable resources when it comes to recommending students in need of mentoring and conveying the critical importance of such relationships to parents who may need guidance and coaching to understand the benefits of mentoring.

Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) discuss the need to identify the general program parameters including goals, student population, qualifications to participate, and resources needed. King et al. (2002) emphasize the goal to create a multidimensional program that includes opportunities for relationship building, self esteem enhancement, goal setting and academic support. Strong mentoring programs need a clearly articulated plan outlining the specific population served, individuals responsible for management, structure and type of mentoring partnerships, overarching goals and performance outcomes. Whenever presenting the idea of such a program to administrators, it is imperative that developers have a clearly outlined and articulated plan that can lead directly into implementation if approved.

Once a plan is devised and approved, initiators need to locate individuals willing to serve as mentors as well as develop criteria for student participation in the program. King et al. (2002) suggest searching for mentors within the community and the school. Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) further suggest recruiting mentors from businesses, retired workers and service organizations. Reese (2006) even recommends finding mentors in senior citizens and college students. Wherever program developers choose to search for mentors, they must ensure that the individuals chosen believe in the mission of the mentoring program, support the goals, and are devoted to ensuring success for all mentees. Similarly, mentees must be chosen who will directly benefit from the services provided and who demonstrate a genuine need for mentorship and guidance.

Chosen mentors must also be provided with ongoing training and support to ensure they employ best practices and feel they have individuals they can turn to when they need advice or guidance regarding particular situations. All three research teams (King et al., 2002, Dappen & Isernhagen, 2005, Reese, 2006) agree that continuous training and support for mentors is necessary to ensure the success of any mentoring program. Mentors must be provided with a "toolkit" of strategies to use to "reach" students in need, help them increase autonomy, and influence the types of decisions students make. Although on the surface mentoring relationships may seem easy to establish, maintaining successful relationships require work and dedication on behalf of both partners.

Careful consideration must be given to mentor and mentee pairings to ensure that partnerships are created reflective of interest, common traits or characteristics, and personalities. Dappen & Isernhagen (2005) suggest developing criteria for matching mentors and mentees that relate specifically to program goals. They encourage a clearly defined rationale for how students are matched with mentors and why certain partnerships are created as opposed to others. Matching mentoring partners is perhaps the most important component of developing a mentoring program because the relationship is the core of what makes each partnership unique and successful.

Finally, program developers must ensure that evaluation criteria are in place to meaningfully assess the success of the program and determine if changes are necessary to promote further success and growth. Researchers (King et al., 2002, Dappen & Isernhagen, 2005, Reese, 2006) all agree that evaluation indicators are necessary for sustaining a high quality program. Feedback and input from mentors and mentees must be sought, and suggestions for improvement should be implemented to enhance opportunities afforded by the program.

Viewpoints

One issue highlighted in some of the literature concerns the fact that most mentoring programs start in middle and high school with little opportunities for intervention early on during the elementary years. Although there are some great examples of elementary school-based mentor programs as noted above, very few evaluative studies have been conducted regarding implementation of such programs at the elementary level (King et al., 2002). For the most part, studies related to program effectiveness during the elementary years point to anecdotal evidence or findings from studies conducted at one school. Few studies provide a comprehensive overview of the benefits of mentoring programs across wide populations of elementary school aged children. King et al. (2002) highlight findings of O'Donnell et al. (1995) that early interventions may prove more effective in preventing current and future health problems. Despite findings such as these indicating that early interventions are critical, a majority of mentoring programs still exist at the middle and high school levels.

Terms & Concepts

At-risk Youth: Elementary and secondary students who are potentially likely to participate in negative, unhealthy behaviors which put them at risk for academic failure.

Architect, Construction Management, and Engineering (ACE) Mentor Program: ACE operates in urban areas all over the United States and fosters relationships as students collaborate on a project in an architect's office. Mentors help the students write proposals, plan, design, and construct a final project.

Big Brothers Big Sisters - Big Brothers Big Sisters is likely the most well known mentoring program across the United States. Part of the mission of the program is to help children reach their potential through professionally supported, one-to-one relationships with mentors (Big Brothers Big Sisters, 2007). Program mentors work with children ages 6 through 18.

Healthy Kids Mentoring Program A program offered to elementary students in one Midwestern suburban public school. Mentors meet with students twice a week for 90 minutes and focus on four components including relationship building, self-esteem enhancement, goal setting, and academic assistance (King et al., 2002).

Mentee An individual in need of a strong relationship, support and guidance to help him or her make positive decisions about life and exhibit healthy behavior.

Mentor - A mentor is someone who serves in the role of a teacher, counselor, guide, protector or friend to a mentee. A mentor and mentee are paired according to interests, personalities, common characteristics, and needs.

Peer-Tutoring Often, mentoring partnerships can take the form of peer-tutoring or peer-assistance dyads in which both partners work together toward a common goal or completion of a shared task or assignment.

Reciprocal Relationships The mentoring partnership is an example of a reciprocal relationship. Both Mentor and Mentee benefit from the experience through improved self-esteem, self-confidence, academic achievement, etc.

School-Based Mentoring In some programs, community leaders connect with students through school-based mentoring (SBM) programs, e.g., adults who mentor at-risk students. (Frels et al., 2013)

Bibliography

Barton-Arwood, S., Jolivette, K., & Massey, N. (2000). Mentoring with elementary-age students. Intervention in School and Clinic , 36; pp. 36-39. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database, Education Research Complete, http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=3497976&site=ehost-live

Bernstein, L. (2007). Is there a mentor in your future? Career World, 35; pp. 9-11.

Big Brothers Big Sisters (2007). Our Programs. Retrieved June 5, 2007, from http://www.bbbs.org.

Britner, P., Balcazar, F., Blechman, E., Blinn-Pike, L., & Larose, S. (2006). Mentoring special youth populations. Journal of Community Psychology, 34; pp. 747- Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=22671811&site=ehost-live

Curtis, T., & Hansen-Schwoebel, K. (1999). Big Brothers Big Sisters school-based mentoring: Evaluation summary of five pilot programs. Philadelphia: Big Brothers Big Sisters of America.

Dappen, L., & Isernhagen, J. (2005). Developing a student mentoring program: Building Connections for at-risk students. Preventing school failure, 49; p. 21-25. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=17154023&site=ehost-live

Frels, R. K., Onwuegbuzie, A. J., Bustamante, R. M., Garza, Y., Nelson, J. A., Nichter, M., & Soto Leggett, E. (2013). Purposes and approaches of selected mentors in school-based mentoring: a collective case study. Psychology in the Schools, 50, 618-633. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=88107336&site=ehost-live

Hinton, K. (2006). The true meaning of mentorship. Diverse: Issues in Higher Education, pp. 60. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23188044&site=ehost-live

Jones, J. (2013). Factors influencing mentees' and mentors' learning throughout formal mentoring relationships. Human Resource Development International, 16, 390-408. Retrieved December 16, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90134894&site=ehost-live

King, K., Vidourek, R., Davis, B., & McClellan, W. (2002). Increasing self-esteem and school connectedness through a multidimensional mentoring program. The Journal of School Health, 72; pp. 294-299. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=7451125&site=ehost-live

Mecca, A. M. (2001). The mentoring revolution: Growing America one child at a time. Part I. Tiburon, CA: California Mentor Foundation.

Miller, D. (1997). Mentoring structure: Building a protective community. Preventing School Failure, 41; pp. 105-109. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9708105173&site=ehost-live

Morrison, I., Everton, T., & Rudduck, J. (2000). Pupils helping other pupils with their learning: Cross-age tutoring in a primary and secondary school. Mentoring & Tutoring, 8; pp. 187-200. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=4052829&site=ehost-live

O'Donnel, J., Hawkins, J., Catalano, R., Abbot, R.,& Day, L. (1995). Preventing school failure, drug use, and delinquency among low-income children in long-term intervention in elementary schools. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 65; pp. 87-99. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9502161313&site=ehost-live

Quince, A., & Layman, M. (2006). Pupil2Pupil peer mentoring. Education Review, 19; pp. 85-89. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=23074714&site=ehost-live

Reese, S. (2006). Elements of an effective mentoring program. Techniques: Connecting Education & Careers, 81; pp. 20-21. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=22379169&site=ehost-live

Rhodes, J. E. (2002). Stand by me. The risks and rewards of mentoring today's youth. Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Rockwell, S. (1997). Mentoring through accessible, authentic opportunities. Preventing School Failure, 41; pp. 111-114. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9708105175&site=ehost-live

Tierney, J. P., & Grossman, J. B. (1995). Making a difference: An impact study of Big Brothers Big Sisters. Philadelphia: Public/Private Ventures.

Townsel, K. T. (1997). Mentoring African American youth. Preventing School Failure, 41; pp. 125-127. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9708105181&site=ehost-live

Ulvik, M., & Sunde, E. (2013). The impact of mentor education: Does mentor education matter? Professional Development in Education, 39, 754-770. Retrieved December 16, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=90503492&site=ehost-live

Suggested Reading

Blinn-Pike, L., Kuschel, D., McDaniel, A., Mingus, S., & Poole-Muttie, M. (1998). The process of mentoring pregnant adolescents: An exploratory study. Family Relations, 47; pp. 119-127. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=582852&site=ehost-live

Charlton, T. (1998). Enhancing school effectiveness through using peer support strategies with pupils and teachers. Support for Learning 13; pp. 50-53.

Dappen, L., & Isernhagen, J. (2002). TeamMates: A model to support mentoring in rural schools. Journal of Research in Rural Education, 17; pp. 154-161.

Dubois, D. L., Holloway, B. E., Valentine, J.C., & Cooper, H. (2002). Effectiveness of mentoring programs for youth: A meta-analytic review. American Journal of Community Psychology, 30; pp. 157-197. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Academic Search Premier http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=6713612&site=ehost-live

Dopp, J., Block, T. (2004). High school peer mentoring that works! Teaching Exceptional Children, 37; pp. 56-62. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=14315345&site=ehost-live

Guetzloe, A. (1997). The power of positive relationships: Mentoring programs in the school and community. Preventing School Failure, 41; pp. 100-104. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=9708105171&site=ehost-live

Hernandez, B., Hayes, E., Balcazar, F., & Keys, C. (2001). Responding to the needs of the underserved: A peer mentor approach. Psychosocial Process, 14; pp. 142-149.

142-149.

Reglin, G. (1998). Mentoring students at-risk: An underutilized alternative education strategy for K-12 teachers. Springfield, IL: Thomas.

Rhodes, J. E., Grossman, J. B., & Resch, N. L. (2000). Agents of change: Pathways through which mentoring relationships influence adolescents' academic adjustment. Child Development, 71; pp. 1662-1671. Retrieved June 2, 2007 from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=3981090&site=ehost-live