Teacher Burnout

Abstract

In the United States, "teacher burnout" has become a commonly used term. With a predicted teacher shortage, coupled with the increasing attention on the central role of education on the economic future of the country, teacher burnout has become an increasingly important topic. Teacher burnout occurs over a period of time, when the job functions and/or organizational structures of the school introduce stressors that the individual is repeatedly ineffective at handling in a healthy manner. The warning signs of teacher burnout include depersonalization (distancing oneself from others), exhaustion or depression, and a lack of confidence in one's own abilities. Teacher burnout can lead to issues such as a decline in student learning, poor teaching, teacher absenteeism, and teacher attrition.

Keywords Attrition; Burnout; Depersonalization; Depression; Exhaustion; Protective Factors; Self-Concept; Stress; Teacher Absenteeism

School Administration & Policy > Teacher Burnout

Overview

In the United States, "teacher burnout" has become a commonly used term. With a predicted teacher shortage, coupled with the increasing attention on the central role of education on the economic future of the country, teacher burnout has become an increasingly important topic. Teaching is traditionally recognized as a highly stressful occupation, associated with high levels of burnout (Hastings & Bham, 2003). Certain factors appear to put teachers at greater risk. For example, Wood & McCarthy (2002) note that teachers are often isolated from their peers, leading to depersonalization (distancing oneself from others such as students, other teachers or administrators, or parents). Other possible stressors include a lack of community and role ambiguity (Gold, 2001). Huston (2001) notes that teaching "benefits" may include "limited opportunities for career advancement, lack of autonomy, poor salaries, non-motivated and unruly students, heavy workloads, demanding parents, and bureaucratic and administrative pressures" (p. 70). Another factor that has affected the teaching profession is that women (who have traditionally made up the majority of the teaching force) have more professional opportunities than ever before and that there are significantly higher salaries available in other fields. These conditions have contributed to individuals leaving or never considering the teaching profession (Huston, 2001).

The concept of teacher burnout was first recognized during the early 1970s and defined as a stress-related condition (Gold, 2001). Herbert Freudenberger is widely attributed to first coining the term "burnout" in 1974 while conducting research in New York (Wood & McCarthy, 2002). There are various definitions of burnout, and often the term is used in the same way as "stress." However, while the two are related, they are not the same.

Burnout vs. Stress

In order to understand teacher burnout, one must first understand the concept and sequence of the stress response. The terms "burnout" and "stress" are often used interchangeably, and this is an error in understanding the true nature of burnout (Iwanicki, 1983). Lazarus & Folkman (1984, as cited by Wood & McCarthy, 2002) describe the stress response: when an event occurs that is potentially threatening, the body and brain evaluate the situation. It measures the perceived demands against one's perceived ability to fulfill these demands. Those events that emerge as threats that the individual cannot overcome trigger the stress response, a chain of physiological events that, over time, can be harmful. If we feel we can meet the demands of the situation we are able to cope and meet these challenges. Another way to look at life stressors is through the lenses of "good" stress versus "bad" stress. Selye (1974, as cited by Iwanicki, 1983) describes two types of stress: "eustress" and "distress." The former type of stress is considered positive and occurs when an individual is faced with a stressful situation that they feel in control of. Eustress actually often enhances performance. Examples may include an important athletic event an individual has prepared fully for or a work presentation that a team has worked extremely hard on. This type of stress is actually healthy and optimizes an individual's performance. The latter type of stress, distress, is unhealthy stress and has the ability to hinder performance. This type of stress, if repetitive over a long period of time, can lead to burnout (Iwanicki, 1983).

Stress occurs on the way to burnout. However, heavy stress does not always lead to burnout. Burnout most often occurs when stressors occur and coping strategies are absent. Researchers believe that burnout is a product of repetitive and frequent ineffective efforts to handle stressful situations (Gold, 2001). Teacher burnout is a serious worry and manifests itself in physical as well as psychological symptoms. It is not unusual for teachers to feel stressed; however, burnout is a much more complex and serious phenomenon that has critical consequences (Iwanicki, 1983). Symptoms of burnout include feelings and symptoms most frequently associated with depression: hopelessness, helplessness, and sadness (Gold, 2001). Freudenberger (1981, as cited by Gold, 2001) found, however, that the difference between depression and burnout was that burnout was associated more heavily with feelings of conscious anger. Teachers who are experiencing burnout may also find they are:

• Emotionally exhausted,

• Unable to connect deeply with their students, and

• Have low levels of confidence in their ability to accomplish their goals.

These are the three symptoms that are largely used to diagnose burnout (Hastings & Bham, 2003). Chronic and frequent stress has also been linked with physical symptoms such as headaches, allergies, insomnia, high blood pressure, and in extreme cases, diseases such as diabetes or ulcers (Iwanicki, 1983).

The impact of teacher burnout on education is critical—teacher burnout contributes to other issues such as leaving the teaching profession, teacher absenteeism, and lower achievement for students (Hastings & Bham, 2003). Chronic negative stress has also been associated with negative behaviors such as alcoholism, drug addictions, obesity, divorce, and personal life conflicts.

Further Insights

Models of Teacher Burnout

There are several models of teacher burnout and why it occurs. Iwanicki (1983) attributes teacher burnout to three sources of distress: societal, organizational, and role-related stressors.

Societal Stress

Societal sources of stress include declining support among the public for public education, as well as declining respect and appreciation for the teaching profession. Furthermore, the teaching profession faces increased demands from the public. High-stakes testing demands teachers obtain positive testing results from their students to prove their students are learning.

Charter schools—public schools that are privately managed according to founding "charters"—have become very popular in light of the No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top initiatives, which were designed to ensure quality public education for all children and determine school performance based on such high-stakes test results. Teacher burnout and high attrition rates have consequently become the norm at many charter schools (Sawchuk, 2015).

Organizational Pressures

Second, organizational pressures associated with the teaching profession also contribute to teacher burnout. Schools are often hierarchical, and teachers may have little or no control over their classroom practices or what they teach. Teachers who do not have control over what goes on in their classrooms or do not have the freedom to do what they believe is best for their students still face the pressure to succeed through raising test scores. Often, the demands placed upon teachers may come with insufficient resources to meet these demands. Teachers may feel isolated and resentful due to these organization burdens (Iwanicki, 1983).

Role-Related Distress

Third, role-related distress is another source of stress for teachers. This occurs when there is a difference between what a teacher is prepared for versus the environment they encounter when they teach. Teachers who enter an environment that they are not prepared for often experience this type of stress. For example, a teacher who has performed student teaching in a school that is well staffed and supplies are at hand, but then lands a teaching job in a school with a large majority of underserved students and a lack of supplies may experience this type of stress. Sources of role-related distress may also include issues of student discipline, dealing with curriculum issues for certain students, or developing relationships with other teachers and administrators (Iwanicki, 1983). Researchers found that teachers who take on extra-role responsibilities, such as coaching athletic teams, mentoring students outside of class, and advising student organizations can suffer burnout if they are not careful to balance their time, energy, and expectations (Brown & Roloff 2011).

Other Symptoms/Factors

Wood & McCarthy (2002) note that the first models of teacher burnout included symptoms such as a losing idealism and decreased interest in teaching. However, this definition was later refined in the 1980s. Wood & McCarthy (2002) and Akbaba (2014) note three major factors that are widely acknowledged as related to teacher burnout:

• Depersonalization,

• Devaluing of one's work, and

• Emotional exhaustion.

Depersonalization occurs when an individual becomes emotionally distanced from others. Teachers who experience burnout may have trouble connecting to students and/or their colleagues, as well as parents. Teacher burnout is also often accompanied by a devaluation of one's work—seeing the work one does as inconsequential or meaningless. Emotional exhaustion occurs in burnout and may manifest itself in physical symptoms. Ironically, emotional exhaustion can lead to increased stress, propagating a vicious cycle.

Teacher Personality & Teacher Burnout

Certain personality types may also be more susceptible to burnout than others. Research has found that individuals who are extremely high achievers (or perfectionists) are more likely to burn out (Gold, 2001). Friedman (1991) also found the following groups were more likely to report burnout: male teachers, teachers with higher education levels, and older teachers (burnout rates peaking at around 41–45 years old, then declining). Being unmarried was an additional factor contributing to burnout among special education teachers (Williams & Dikes, 2015).

Individuals with these characteristics may be increasingly susceptible to burnout for many reasons. Those who are extremely high achievers or are more highly educated may find teaching incredibly frustrating, especially in the beginning. Teachers often struggle in the profession at the beginning of their careers. This is especially true if an individual is teaching in a school where the student population is underserved and/or the administration does not have high-quality supports in place for new teachers. Such negative environmental factors may have greater negative effects on these types of teachers.

School Organization & Teacher Burnout

Schools are often set up in ways that induce stress. Friedman (1991) notes that schools are often hierarchical, impersonal, with narrow communication channels, and with teachers from various spheres of thoughts and backgrounds. Furthermore, decisions are often made from the top down, with little or no teacher input. These decisions may be enforced through means that teachers may not understand or have any power to change. Friedman (1991) conducted a study in which he sought to identify specific variables that influenced teacher burnout. He studied teacher characteristics as well as organizational characteristics to determine "high" versus "low" burnout schools. Perhaps surprisingly, he found that schools that were categorized as "high" burnout schools were highly organized, with very clear sets of rules and regulations, as well as measurable goals that stressed academic achievement for students. "Low" burnout schools on the other hand, had more flexible standards, and they did not necessarily demand immediate results. Administration hierarchy was less clearly defined in these schools, as well as who was considered a "good" teacher.

While these findings may at first appear counterintuitive, Friedman (1991) points out that the "high" burnout schools in his study did not necessarily take into account teachers' needs or expertise when creating their policies. While teachers had clear sets of rules and expectations, they also had little control over or input into these expectations. On the other hand, the "low" burnout schools had organizational structures that took teacher opinions into account, and teachers were treated as professionals who could help form policy. Teachers in the "low" burnout schools felt that their administrators were accessible, and their input and experience was valued. Decisions were not handed down unilaterally and regarded students' needs and demographics.

Perceived Administrator Attitudes

In a survey of two schools in New York, Byrne (1998) found that teachers reported the greatest cause of burnout to be disregard from their superiors. They felt not only underappreciated, but overworked, and the feeling that they could do no right was pervasive among the staff. When teachers feel they are looked down upon from their managers, teacher burnout can become epidemic.

Role conflict and role ambiguity are related stressors that are found in the teaching profession (Friedman, 1991). Role conflict occurs when demands of the position conflict. For example, a teacher may feel one course of action is necessary for helping a student who is behind, but they are not at liberty to make this decision. Role ambiguity occurs when a teacher does not understand expectations or does not have the resources necessary to carry out the tasks. In this light, it may seem to make sense to organize schools and ensure that expectations are clear. However, if teachers simply feel that they are along for the ride and not contributing to how these expectations are formed, it may ironically lead to role ambiguity and conflict, leading to teacher burnout.

Student Misbehavior & Teacher Burnout

Kids spend only a quarter of their day in school. However, teachers often deal with a host of other personal issues a student may face. Students, especially in underserved areas, may encounter street violence, drug and alcohol abuse, familial issues such as divorce or domestic violence, and impoverished conditions. In some areas of the country, these issues are rampant social concerns. These conditions can lead to students who act out or present serious discipline problems, or have trouble succeeding in school due to their circumstances. Hastings & Bham (2003) conducted a study in which they found student misbehavior was correlated to teacher burnout. They concluded that schools may want to consider professional development geared towards helping teachers deal with issues of student misbehavior as a protection from burnout. Indeed, a meta-analysis of sixteen studies showed a strong correlation between teachers' level of classroom management self-efficacy and burnout characteristics such as depersonalization, emotional exhaustion, and lower personal achievement (Aloe, Amo, & Shanahan, 2014).

Teachers who face student misbehavior issues may also lack support from the administration or parents. In these conditions, even one student with severe behavior problems may seem overwhelming. If a teacher feels that she or he is handling the situation alone, with no support, it is easy to see how the situation can lead to disillusionment or loss of confidence—chief situational factors on the road to teacher burnout.

Issues

Teacher burnout can have a critical impact on the education field and on student learning. One primary area of concern is related to the expected teacher shortage in the United States. While fears of a teacher shortage were initially fueled by the idea that there were too many teachers going into retirement, and not enough younger teachers to replace them, Ingersoll (2003) found that school staffing issues are not totally attributable to a dearth of qualified teachers; rather, a large percentage of teachers are leaving the teaching profession prior to retirement. Statistics show that nearly 25 percent of new teachers leave the profession within the first five years. That attrition rate doubles to about 50 percent in high-poverty areas (NCES, 1996), arguably the areas that are in greatest need of well qualified, resilient teachers. For the 2012–13 school year, 7.1 percent of teachers with one to three years of teaching experience left teaching (NCES, 2014).

Since part of the problem appears to lie in attrition, rather than lack of qualified professionals, it appears that changes in the profession could help alleviate the situation of a depleted teaching force. Combating burnout is one method to improve these rates of departure from teaching. In order to prevent or reduce burnout, policy-makers and schools should first take into account the concrete research regarding what causes teacher burnout. Friedman & Farber (1992) conducted a study to discover whether teacher burnout is related to a teacher's self-concept (how they view themselves) and to how they believe others see them. Their study results found that when teachers feel their work is meaningful, there is a negative correlation to burnout. Furthermore, teachers who believe themselves to be professionally competent and satisfied with their work suffer less from the burnout phenomenon as well. Teachers also reported that they believed students, rather than administrators or parents, had a more correct gauge of whether or not they were experiencing burnout.

Research & Reforms

The results of this study, and others like it, are important to consider when implementing reform, designing a school policy, and building a school culture. How is it possible to support teachers, protect them from burnout, but continue to improve student outcomes, especially for underserved students? There are reforms that offers teachers more autonomy, and improve student outcomes. For example, research has found that teachers who have a voice in the curriculum they teach, the instructional materials they use, and discipline procedures in the classroom are more satisfied with their profession. Furthermore, student learning rises in these classrooms, compared to schools that use a top-down approach in dealing with these matters (Barth, 2001).

Reforms such as salary increases, promotion, or support networks, while they may be helpful at promoting the teaching profession, would likely be less effective at preventing burnout than strategies that will actually improve teachers' day to day work—allowing teachers to choose materials or design their curriculum according to their strengths and students' needs (Friedman & Farber, 1992).

Prevention of Teacher Burnout

Addressing teacher burnout is a complicated topic. Often, schools and administrators do not realize teachers are experiencing burnout until it is too late. Other institutions are not sympathetic enough to the phenomenon. Albee (2000, cited by Wood & McCarthy, 2002) reminds us that "it is accepted public health doctrine that no disease or disorder has ever been treated out of existence" (p. 3). If we are to treat teacher burnout as a syndrome, preventing burnout is a much better model than treating it once symptoms have surfaced. In medicine and psychology, there are three levels of prevention for illnesses: primary, secondary, and tertiary. Primary prevention means to preemptively battle a disorder—to decrease the chance that it actually occurs. Secondary prevention requires early identification, before the symptoms manifest themselves in an uncontrollable manner. Tertiary prevention means to treat someone as to prevent a relapse.

In the context of preventing teacher burnout, or applying primary prevention principles, researchers have suggested implementing practices that allow teachers some control and decision-making power in their classrooms and in their work. Examples may include having a voice in curriculum development and instructional practices, allowing teachers to be involved in discussions of job expectations, and offering professional development opportunities that address the issue of student achievement (Wood & McCarthy, 2002).

As we have discussed, there are many signs of teacher burnout, from teacher absenteeism, to a series of physical symptoms, to feelings of depression and being overwhelmed. In models of modern medicine, secondary and tertiary prevention are much less successful than primary prevention (Albee, 2000, as cited by Wood & McCarthy, 2002). When we look at teacher burnout, too, we can see that this may be true in this case as well. It is always a better solution to fix the root of a problem than to apply band-aids to symptoms as they crop up. Eventually, a situation will be reached where no amount of treatment can keep a teacher at a school or in the teaching profession.

Teacher burnout has serious implications for educational success—ensuring that children are prepared for and can contribute to society in the future. Teachers who experience burnout are at increased risk of dropping out of the profession, having increased health or personal problems, or manifesting burnout through symptoms such as teacher absenteeism, or lack of personal investment in their students' success, which in turn contributes to a serious deterioration in quality of teaching, or leaving the profession altogether. When developing policy to combat teacher burnout, schools and administrators need to take into account what sort of conditions they can create and the type of school culture they can instill in order to reduce teacher burnout and attrition, and keep teachers committed to the success of their students.

Terms & Concepts

Attrition: Attrition refers to leaving the teaching profession, and the percentage of teachers who leave the profession compared to the percentage that stay.

Depersonalization: Depersonalization is a symptom of teacher burnout, where teachers find it difficult to relate to or care about their students. They may also find it difficult to relate to and communicate with administrators, other teachers, and parents of their students.

Depression: Depression is characterized by prolonged and constant feelings of hopelessness or exhaustion. Teachers who are experiencing burnout often have symptoms similar to depression.

Exhaustion: Teachers experiencing burnout experience exhaustion—extreme tiredness or fatigue—for a prolonged period of time. Exhaustion may be emotional or physical.

Protective Factors: Protective factors are factors that may protect an individual from teacher burnout. These may include having control over curriculum and instruction practices, increased professional development in dealing with difficult students and situations, or a strong culture of support from school administration.

Self-Concept: Self-concept refers to how an individual teacher views themselves—positively or negatively. Teachers who cannot maintain a positive self-concept are at a higher risk for burnout. Self-concept can be influenced by internal or external factors.

Stress: Stress occurs when difficult situations arise. Teacher burnout is the result of prolonged stress that an individual repeatedly does not feel able to handle.

Teacher Absenteeism: Teacher absenteeism is when teachers do not show up for work. It is thought to be a negative teacher stress or teacher burnout.

Bibliography

Akbaba, S. (2014). A comparison of the burnout levels of teachers with different occupational satisfaction scores. Educational Sciences: Theory & Practice, 14, 1253–1261. Retrieved October 15, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=a9h&AN=98586457&site=eds-live

Albee, G. W. (2000). Commentary on prevention and counseling psychology. The Counseling Psychologist, 28 , 845-853.

Barth, R. S. (2001). Teacher leader. Phi Delta Kappan, 82 , 443-449. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4047320&site=ehost-live

Brissie, J. S., Hoover-Dempsey, K.V., & Bassler, O. C. (1988). Individual, situational contributors to teacher burnout. Journal of Education Research, 82 , 106-113. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=13367403&site=ehost-live

Brown, L., and Roloff, M. E. (2011). Extra-role time, burnout, and commitment: the power of promises kept. Business Communication Quarterly 74, 450–474. Retrieved October15, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=75234643&site=eds-live

Byrne, J. J. (1998). Teacher as hunger artist: Burnout: Its causes, effects, and remedies. Contemporary Education, 69 , 86-92. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=499578&site=ehost-live

Farber, B.A. (1984). Teacher burnout: Assumptions, myths, and issues. Teachers College Record, 86 , 321-338. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=3283986&site=ehost-live

Flook, L., Goldberg, S.B., Pinger, L., Bonus, K., & Davidson, R.J. (2013). Mindfulness for teachers: A pilot study to assess effects on stress, burnout, and teaching efficacy. Mind, Brain & Education, 7, 182-195. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89768991&site=ehost-live

Freudenberger, H.J. (1980). Burnout: The high cost of high achievement . Garden City, NY: Anchor Press.

Friedman, I.A. (1991). High-and low-burnout schools: School culture aspects of teacher burnout. Journal of Education Research, 84 , 325-334. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5819437&site=ehost-live

Friedman, I. A., & Farber, B. A. (1992). Professional self-concept as a predictor of teacher burnout. Journal of Educational Research, 86 , 28-35. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5815400&site=ehost-live

Geske, T.G., & E. Cohn (1998). Why is a high school diploma no longer enough?: The economic and social benefits of higher education. In R. Fossey and M. Bateman (Eds.), Condemning students to debt: College loans and public policy . New York: Teachers College Press.

Gold, Y. (1984). Burnout: A major problem for the teaching profession. Education, 104 , 271- 275. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4717189&site=ehost-live

Hastings, R.P., & Bham, M.S. (2003). The relationship between student behaviour patterns and teacher burnout. School Psychology International, 24 , 115-127.

Huston, J. (1989). Teacher burnout & effectiveness: A case study. Education, 110 , 70-79. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=4717794&site=ehost-live

Ingersoll, R. M. (2003). Is there really a teacher shortage? Seattle, WA: University of Washington, Center for the Study of Teaching and Policy.

Iwanicki, E.F. (1983). Toward understanding and alleviating teacher burnout. Theory Into Practice, 22 , 27-33. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=5201879&site=ehost-live

Kipps-Vaughan, D. (2013). Supporting Teachers Through Stress Management. Education Digest, 79, 43-46Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=89804302&site=ehost-live

Lazarus, R. S., & Folkman, S. (1984). Coping and adaptation. In W. D. Gentry (Ed.), The handbook of behavioral medicine (pp. 282-325). New York: Guilford.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES). (1996). 1993-94 schools and staffing survey. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), R. Goldring, S. Taie, & M. Riddles (2014). Teacher attrition and mobility: results from the 2012–13 Teacher Follow-up Survey. Washington, DC: NCES.

Oakes, W., Lane, K., Jenkins, A., & Booker, B. B. (2013). Three-tiered models of prevention: Teacher efficacy and burnout. Education & Treatment of Children (West Virginia University Press), 36, 95-126. Retrieved December 15, 2013, from EBSCO Online Database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=91558284&site=ehost-live

Sawchuk, S. (2015). Charters look anew at teacher retention. Education Week, 34(32), 1-17. Retrieved January 20, 2016, from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=103040689&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Selye, H. (1974) Stress without distress. Philadelphia, PA: Lippincott.

Thompson, L.J. (1982). Partners in encouragement: An alternative to teacher burnout. Individual Psychology: The Journal of Adlerian Theory, Research & Practice, 38 , 315-322. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=9093705&site=ehost-live

Williams, J., & Dikes, C. (2015). The implications of demographic variables as related to burnout among a sample of special education teachers. Education, 135(3), 337-345. Retrieved January 20, 2016, from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=101708135&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Wood, T., & McCarthy, C. (2002). Understanding and preventing teacher burnout. (Report EDO-SP-2002-03). Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. (ERIC Document Reproduction Service No. ED 477726). Retrieved September 1, 2007 from EBSCO Online Education Research Database. http://www.eric.ed.gov/ERICDocs/data/ericdocs2sql/content_storage_01/0000019b/80/1b/28/0a.pdf

Suggested Reading

Abel, M. & Seawell, J. (1999). Stress and burnout in rural and urban secondary school teachers. Journal of Educational Research, 92 , 287-94. Retrieved September 15, 2007 from EBSCO Online Database Academic Search Premier. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=aph&AN=1991391&site=ehost-live

Aloe, A., Amo, L., & Shanahan, M. (2014). Classroom management self-efficacy and burnout: A multivariate meta-analysis. Educational Psychology Review, 26(1), 101-126. Retrieved January 20, 2016, from EBSCO online database Education Research Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=ehh&AN=94609722&site=ehost-live&scope=site

Brown, M. & Ralph, S. (1998). The identification of stress in teachers. In J. Dunham & V. Varma (Eds.), Stress in teachers: Past, present and future. (pp. 37-56) London: Whurr Publishers Ltd.

Cherniss, C. (1980). Staff burnout: Job stress in the human services. Beverly Hills, CA: Sage Publications.

Dworkin, A.G. (1987). Teacher burnout in the public schools: Structural causes and consequences for children. Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.

Fernet, C., et al. (2014). Fired up with passion: investigating how job autonomy and passion predict burnout at career start in teachers. Work & Stress 28, 270–288. Retrieved October 15, 2014 from EBSCO Online Database Business Source Complete. http://search.ebscohost.com/login.aspx?direct=true&db=bth&AN=97586390&site=eds-live

Greenberg, J. S. (1999). Comprehensive stress management (6th ed.). Boston: McGraw-Hill.

Henke, R., Zahn, L & Carroll, D. (2001). Attrition of new teachers among recent college graduates. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

Ingersoll, R. (1995). Teacher supply, teacher qualifications and teacher turnover. Washington, DC: National Center for Education Statistics.

Maslach, C., & Jackson, S.E. (1981). The measurement of experienced burnout. The Journal of Occupational Behaviour, 2, 99-113.

Mobley, W. (1982). Employee turnover: Causes, consequences and control. Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

National Commission on Excellence in Education. (1983). A nation at risk: The imperative for educational reform. Washington, DC: Government Printing Office.

National Commission on Teaching and America's Future. (1997). Doing what matters most: Investing in quality teaching. New York: National Commission on Teaching and America's Future.

Schlecty, P., & Vance, V. (1981). Do academically able teachers leave education? The North Carolina case. Phi Delta Kappan, 63 , 105-112.

Texas Center for Educational Research. (2000). The cost of teacher turnover. Austin, TX: Texas State Board for Educator Certification.